Changes

There are exceptions to the anonymous tradition of the Upanishads and other Vedic literature. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, for example, includes closing credits to ''Shvetashvatara'', and he is considered the author of the Upanishad.

There are exceptions to the anonymous tradition of the Upanishads and other Vedic literature. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, for example, includes closing credits to ''Shvetashvatara'', and he is considered the author of the Upanishad.

==उपनिषद्विषयाः ॥ Upanishad Vishaya==

==उपनिषद्विषयाः ॥ Upanishad Vishaya==

The main subject of Upanishads is the discussion about Paramatmatattva. There are two kinds of Vidyas : Para (पराविद्या) and Apara (अपराविद्या). Of these Paravidya is supreme and is called Brahmavidya (ब्रह्मविद्या). Upanishads present the detailed discussion about Paravidya. Aparavidya is primarily related to Karmas, hence called Karmavidya (कर्मविद्या). The fruits of Karmavidya are perishable while the results of Brahmavidya are indestructable. Aparavidya may not lead one to Moksha (may lead to svarga and other worlds) but Paravidya always gives Moksha.<ref name=":42222" /> The central concepts found in the Upanishads involve the following aspects of Sanatana Dharma<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":022">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref>

The main subject of Upanishads is the discussion about Paramatmatattva. There are two kinds of Vidyas : Para (पराविद्या) and Apara (अपराविद्या). Of these Paravidya is supreme and is called Brahmavidya (ब्रह्मविद्या). Upanishads present the detailed discussion about Paravidya. Aparavidya is primarily related to Karmas, hence called Karmavidya (कर्मविद्या). The fruits of Karmavidya are perishable while the results of Brahmavidya are indestructable. Aparavidya may not lead one to Moksha (may lead to svarga and other worlds) but Paravidya always gives Moksha.<ref name=":42222" /> The central concepts found in the Upanishads involve the following aspects that are the fundamental and unique values of Sanatana Dharma which have been guiding the Chitta (Manas) of people of Bharatavarsha. None of these concepts have ever been mentioned or used in any kind of ancient literatures in any other part of the world.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":022">''Sanatana Dharma : An Advanced Textbook of Hindu Religion and Ethics''. (1903) Benares : The Board of Trustees, Central Hindu College</ref>

*ब्रह्मन् ॥ [[Brahman]] (Supreme Being, Ultimate Reality)

 

*आत्मा or जीवात्मा ॥ [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] or Jivatma (Self)

*जीवः ॥ Jiva (Embodiment of Atman)

*ब्रह्मन् ॥ [[Brahman]], Paramatma (परमात्मा), That (तत्), Purusha (पुरुषः) Nirguna Brahman (निर्गुणब्रह्मन्) (Supreme Being, Ultimate Reality)  

*माया ॥ Maya (Illusion)

 

*आत्मा ॥ [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], जीवात्मा ॥ Jivatma, Ishvara (ईश्वरः), Sat (सत्), Saguna Brahman (सर्गुणब्रह्मन्), the Subject (Self)

*प्रकृतिः ॥ Prkriti, Asat (असत्), Not Self, The Object (Material Cause)

*कर्म ॥ Karma (Action) of Past, Present and Future

*माया ॥ Maya (Illusion), Shakti, Power, the Will, of Ishvara.

*॥ Unity of Brahman and Atman)

*॥ Unity of Brahman and Atman)

*सृष्टिः ॥ Srshti (Origin of Creation)

*सर्गः ॥ Sarga (Origin of Srshti (सृष्टिः)

*ज्ञानम् ॥ Jnana (Knowledge that Unity and Self are not separate)

*ज्ञानम् ॥ Jnana (Knowledge that Unity and Self are not separate)

*अविद्या ॥ Avidya (Ignorance)

*अविद्या ॥ Avidya (Ignorance)

*मोक्षम् ॥ Moksha (The Paramapurushartha)

*मोक्षम् ॥ Moksha (The Paramapurushartha)

The Upanishads speak about the identity of the Supreme Being, the Brahman, the individual Atman, their mutual relationship, the Universe (jagat) and man’s place in it. In short they deal with Jiva, Jagat and Jagadishwara and ultimately the path to ''mokṣa'' or ''mukti.''<ref>http://www.esamskriti.com/e/Spirituality/Upanishads-Commentary/Vedas-And-Upanishads~-A-Structural-Profile-3.aspx</ref>  

The Upanishads speak about the identity of the Supreme Being, the Brahman, the individual Atman, their mutual relationship, the Universe (jagat) and man’s place in it. In short they deal with Jiva, Jagat, Jnana and Jagadishwara and ultimately the path to Brahman called as ''mokṣa'' or ''mukti.''<ref>http://www.esamskriti.com/e/Spirituality/Upanishads-Commentary/Vedas-And-Upanishads~-A-Structural-Profile-3.aspx</ref>

Brahman and Atman are two concepts that are unique to Indian knowledge systems which are highly developed in the Upanishads. From the root cause Prkriti the world came into being. Paramatma is Nitya, Puratana, Shasvata (Eternal) devoid of the cycles of birth and death. The Sharira or body is subjected to death and birth but Atma residing in it continues to exist. Just like butter is evenly distributed in milk so also Paramatma is all-pervading in the world. Just like the sparks arise out of fire so also the beings take shape from the Paramatma. Such aspects which are explained in Upanishads have widely developed in the Darshana shastras.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" />  

Some terms which are well explained in the Upanishads include, Prkriti (प्रकृतिः), Purusha (पुरुषः), Paramatma (परमात्मा), Ishvara (ईश्वरः), Jivatma (जीवात्मा), Maya (माया), Brahman (ब्रह्मन्), Avidya (अविद्या), Indriyas (इन्द्रियानि),  etc. From the root cause Prkriti the world came into being. Paramatma is Nitya, Puratana, Shasvata (Eternal) devoid of the cycles of birth and death. The Sharira or body is subjected to death and birth but Atma residing in it continues to exist. Just like butter is evenly distributed in milk so also Paramatma is all-pervading in the world. Just like the sparks arise out of fire so also the beings take shape from the Paramatma. Such aspects which are explained in Upanishads have widely developed in the Darshana shastras.  

The word Brahman is used to represent the all pervading, ultimate reality without a second. While this is a principle of universal acceptance for all sects of Vedantins, there is a variation in these schools as to relationship between Brahman and Jivatma.  

=== Brahman and Atman ===

Brahman and Atman are two concepts that are unique to Indian knowledge systems which are highly developed in the Upanishads.  

 

 

==== Nirguna Brahma (Advaita) ====

'''Advaita Vedantins''' completely dismiss the concept that Brahman and Jagat (world) are completely distinct from each other and their tattva is explained in Shankara Bhashya. For example, Chandogya Upanishad describes the unity of Jiva and Brahman, in the form of conversation between [[Uddalaka and Shvetaketu (उद्दालकः श्वेतकेतुः च।)|Uddalaka and Shvetaketu]]. Kathopanishad also proclaims that he who sees as though there is difference between the two (Jiva and Brahman) will be engaged in cylce of birth to death. Jnana that they are one and the same is to be attained through the Manas only. There is no diversity between the Jivatma and Supreme Brahman.  (Kath. Upan. 2.1.11)<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) ''[https://archive.org/details/EightUpanishadsWithSankarabhashyamSwamiGambhiranandaVol11989/page/n198 Eight Upanishads, Volume 2 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya)]'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama</ref>

 

'''The Dvaita Vedantins''' uphold the distinctness of Paramatma from Jivatma both in material world and in Moksha. It teaches that Vishnu is the Supreme Deity and formed the Universe out of Prkriti which is already existing. Here the concept of Supreme (Brahman) is seen in Vishnu, who is the efficient cause of the Universe. It follows the Samkhya darshana way of describing the evolution and that Jiva travels on a spiritual journey to attain the Paramatma. Jiva attains Moksha in which it remains in Bhoga (भोगः । enjoyment of eternal bliss) with the Paramatma. The Jiva reaches one or other of the four conditions

# Sannidhya (सान्निध्यम् । Being in proximity to the Divine Form)

# Sayujyam (सायुज्यम् । Union with the Divine Form).

However, this union is not to be considered as one of identity of nature. (Page 33 of Reference<ref name=":022" />).

'''The Vishistadvaita Vedantins''' uphold separateness of Jivatma and Paramatma but that Jivatma is a separate entity which are Vyakta (व्यक्तः । manifested) during the period of activity and when Pralaya (प्रलयः । ) approaches they are drawn in and become Avyakta (अव्यक्तः । Unmanifested) Paramatma or Brahman.  Vishistadvaita is a path for those who conscious of the separation, and long for union with the Supreme, and they find solace in worship and devotion of Ishvara (Saguna Brahman). Brahman is the highest Reality, the One, but has attributes inseparable from Himself. From Brahman, comes the Sankarshana (संकर्षणः) or Jivatma, the separated Atma (soul), which produces Pradyumna (प्रद्युम्नः) the Mind, which in turn produces Aniruddha (अनिरुद्धः) the I (Ahamkara principle). Thus Brahman is the object of worship on whom Jivatma depends on, Jivatma being not Brahman but a part of it. The separation is insisted on but union is sought.<ref name=":022" />

The word Brahman is used to represent the all pervading, ultimate reality without a second. The  concept that brahman and jagat (world) are completely distinct from each other is dismissed and the tattva is explained. For example, Chandogya Upanishad describes the unity of Jiva and Brahman, in the form of conversation between [[Uddalaka and Shvetaketu (उद्दालकः श्वेतकेतुः च।)|Uddalaka and Shvetaketu]].

==== Atman ====

==== Atman ====

The Atman is individual self (soul) also called as Jivatma. The word ''Atman'' means the inner self, the soul, the immortal spirit in an individual, and all living beings including animals and trees. ''Atman'' is the predominantly discussed topic in the Upanishads, but they express two distinct, somewhat divergent themes. Some state that Brahman (Highest Reality, Universal Principle, Being-Consciousness-Bliss) is identical with ''Atman'', while others state ''Atman'' is part of Brahman but not identical. This ancient debate flowered into various dual, non-dual theories in Hinduism. The idea put forth by the Upanishadic seers that Atman and Brahman are One and the same is one of the greatest contributions made to the thought of the world.  

The Atman is individual self (soul) also called as Jivatma. The word ''Atman'' means the inner self, the soul, the immortal spirit in an individual, and all living beings including animals and trees. ''Atman'' is the predominantly discussed topic in the Upanishads, but they express two distinct, somewhat divergent themes. Some state that Brahman (Highest Reality, Universal Principle, Being-Consciousness-Bliss) is identical with ''Atman'', while others state ''Atman'' is part of Brahman but not identical. This ancient debate flowered into various dual, non-dual theories in Hinduism. The idea put forth by the Upanishadic seers that Atman and Brahman are One and the same is one of the greatest contributions made to the thought of the world.  

'''Manas'''

'''Manas and Buddhi'''

Manas is also called as Prajna, Chitta, Samkalpa which has some vritti or state of existence. The thinking nature of man has been understood as the very essence of human beings since ancient times in India. Serious searches for unravelling the mystery of mind and its impacts on life proved decisive in deepening the philosophical thoughts of human race making definite impacts upon the socio-cultural standards of life. Studies of mind have contributed much in the fields of arts and science. It is a matter of fact that all philosophical thoughts and knowledge systems in India spring out explicitly or implicitly from the Vedas. The Upaniṣads being an integral part of Vedas represent the philosophical zenith of the Vedic thoughts. The discussions on mind also are dense and deep in the Upanishads.  

Manas is also called as Prajna, Chitta, Samkalpa which has some vritti or states of existence. The thinking nature of man has been understood as the very essence of human beings since ancient times in India. Serious searches for unravelling the mystery of mind and its impacts on life proved decisive in deepening the philosophical thoughts of human race making definite impacts upon the socio-cultural standards of life. Studies of mind have contributed much in the fields of arts and science. It is a matter of fact that all philosophical thoughts and knowledge systems in India spring out explicitly or implicitly from the Vedas. The Upaniṣads being an integral part of Vedas represent the philosophical zenith of the Vedic thoughts. The discussions on mind also are dense and deep in the Upanishads.  

Aitareya Upanishad describes the origin of cosmic mind along with the origin of universe in a sequential manner. <blockquote>हृदयं निरभिद्यत हृदयान्मनो मनसश्चन्द्रमा । (Aite. Upan. 1.1.4) <ref>Aitareya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D All Adhyayas] )</ref></blockquote>A heart parted open and from it came the mind. from the internal organ, mind, came the Moon.  

Aitareya Upanishad describes the origin of cosmic mind along with the origin of universe in a sequential manner. <blockquote>हृदयं निरभिद्यत हृदयान्मनो मनसश्चन्द्रमा । (Aite. Upan. 1.1.4) <ref>Aitareya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D All Adhyayas] )</ref></blockquote>A heart parted open and from it came the mind. from the internal organ, mind, came the Moon.  

Thought becomes the power that triggers the process of creation driven by the supposition of a cosmic mind or cosmic intelligent behind creation. While Brhadaranyaka says एतत्सर्वं मन एव " (Brhd. Upan. 1.5.3)<ref>Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_1a Adhyaya 1 Brahmana 5])</ref> All this is the Mind itself". Isavasya refers to Manas in अनेजदेकं मनसो जवीयो ।<ref>Isavasyopanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D All Mantras])</ref> in the context of Atman being faster than the mind. Here the speed is described as a property of mind. Brhdaranyaka further says that Manas is the common ground for all imaginations and decisions.<ref>Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_4p Adhyaya 4, Brahmana 5])</ref> That mind is not consciousness but it is a subtle form of matter like the body is expounded in the Chandogya Upanishad. Anna consumed is sorted in three ways post digestion. The grossest part becomes faeces; the middle component becomes flesh; the subtle ingredient becomes the mind.  

Thought becomes the power that triggers the process of creation driven by the supposition of a cosmic mind or cosmic intelligent behind creation. While Brhadaranyaka says एतत्सर्वं मन एव " (Brhd. Upan. 1.5.3)<ref>Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_1a Adhyaya 1 Brahmana 5])</ref> All this is the Mind itself". Isavasya refers to Manas in अनेजदेकं मनसो जवीयो ।<ref>Isavasyopanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D All Mantras])</ref> in the context of Atman being faster than the mind. Here the speed is described as a property of mind. Brhdaranyaka further says that Manas is the common ground for all imaginations and decisions.<ref>Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_4p Adhyaya 4, Brahmana 5])</ref> That mind is not consciousness but it is a subtle form of matter like the body is expounded in the Chandogya Upanishad. Further it says that Anna consumed is sorted in three ways post digestion. The grossest part becomes faeces; the middle component becomes flesh; the subtle ingredient becomes the mind.  

===उपनिषद्वैशिष्ट्यम् ॥ Vaisishtyam ===

===उपनिषद्वैशिष्ट्यम् ॥ Vaisishtyam ===

Although all Upanishads proclaim that the goal of human life, embroiled in the flow of samsara, is to attain Jnana that leads to Moksha, the ultimate paramapurushartha, each of the upanishads have their own special features about their siddhantas as follows <ref name=":22" />

Although all Upanishads proclaim that the goal of human life, embroiled in the flow of samsara, is to attain Jnana that leads to Moksha, the ultimate paramapurushartha, each of the upanishads have their own special features about their siddhantas as follows <ref name=":22" />

''Main article: Vedanta''

''Main article: Vedanta''

The Upanishads form one of the three main sources for all schools of Vedanta, together with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutras.^[129] Due to the wide variety of philosophical teachings contained in the Upanishads, various interpretations could be grounded on the Upanishads. The schools of Vedānta seek to answer questions about the relation between atman and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.^[130] The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between atman and Brahman:^[131]

The Upanishads form one of the three main sources for all schools of Vedanta, together with the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutras. Due to the wide variety of philosophical teachings contained in the Upanishads, various interpretations could be grounded on the Upanishads. The schools of Vedānta seek to answer questions about the relation between atman and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.^[130] The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between atman and Brahman:^[131]

*According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.^[131]

*According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.^[131]

*According to Vishishtadvaita the jīvātman is a part      of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.

*According to Vishishtadvaita the jīvātman is a part      of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.