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Line 38: − + − Chemistry dealt primarily with the composition and changes of matter and the underlying principles were deduced in a systematic and logical way purely based on thoughts with little or no experimental proofs. Yet many such theories, the products of intellectual perfection and sublime intuition, stand in good comparison with some of the most recent and advanced scientific ideas of the present time. Here we come across a few ancient concepts with particular reference to srshti (theories of cosmogenesis) and origin of jagat (universe) with respect to matter and particles and their connection with chemistry.+ Line 68:
Line 68: − Some important concepts of chemistry that are studied in modern times were proposed in ancient times primarily in Samkhya and Vaiseshika darshanas. + + − + + − + − + − + − + − + − − − The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind). − Each of the first five substances possess a unique quality, which makes the substance what it is. Maharshi Kanada recognized four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref> − − # kshiti or earth - smell − # apa or water - taste − # tejas or fire - color − # vayu or air - touch − − The first four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are partless and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha. Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules. These atoms are characterized by their characteristic mass, number, quantity, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /> − − That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions. − − === Chemical Processes === − Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature. − − ==== Combination of Atoms ==== − Atoms may conjoin or disjoin in reactions. The atoms of the same bhuta (element) combine driven by an inherent tendency which is their natural property to form dyads according to Prashastapada. It represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to our modern conception. These binary molecules or dyads then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation.<ref name=":1" /> Maharshi Kanada maintained that different atoms combine in different patterns, some in pairs, some in triads, tetrads etc. − − Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads ≡ 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1 − − While Kanada's Atoms combine ≡ basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":5" /> − − Atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda). − − ==== Effect of Heat ==== − A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance<ref name=":1" /> − − - decomposes into original homogenous paramanus or the basic unit with zero mass (not the unit of dyad, triad etc) − − - transformation of the character of the atoms − − - recombination of paramanus with a new basic unit arrangement and order resulting in a new substance. − − The Vaisheshikas hold that under the influence of heat, substances are broken down to the most basic entity (paramanu) before being transformed in to a new substance whereas the Nyaya school does not believe in decomposition in to the very basic entity.<ref name=":3" /> − − Combination may also take place either between atoms of two or more substances belonging to the same or different bhuta classes.<ref name=":1" /> − − (A) Mono-bhautic compounds :—These are the simplest ; i. e., compounds formed by the union of homogeneous atoms of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same bhuta class. − − (B) Hetero-bhautic compounds :—These may be bi or polybhautic compounds formed by the union of heterogeneous atoms of substances belonging to the different bhuta classes. − − A nature (Tattva) of the particular substance when it turns into another nature is called transmutation (Utparivartana) in scientific terms. A study on the Changes (Parivartana) and analysis (Visleṣaṇa) of the substance because of its origin and qualities is called Chemical Science of the particular substance. The Change is of two kinds such as − − 1) Physical Change (Bhautika Parivartana) − − 2) Chemical Change (Rāsāyanika Parivartana) − − The first type of change i.e. the Physical Change, is when the nature of the substance undergoes changes due to various reasons for a particular period of time and returns back to its previous state. For example, a piece of Iron forms into magnet after a deep friction (Gharṣaṇa) on the magnet and returns into being a piece of iron after it loses the magnetic effect. In same manner, water turns into ice at the state of high cooling (Himānka) and returns to liquid state after melting. In second type of change i.e. Chemical Change once the nature of the substance changes it cannot be reversed. For example, Milk turns into curd, and iron turns into rust etc.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref> − + − + − + − + − + − + − The reason for such a classification is not very clear. According to tradition, the maharasas and the uparasas are classified in the order in which they find their usefulness with reference to mercury (rasendra). There is also a view that mercury alone has the appellation of rasa, and all the others are called uparasas. Some of the texts differ from one another in the number of maha- and uparasas as well as the substances comprising them. While the Rasaratnasamuccaya gives the above classification, the Rasaprakasasudhakara, considers rajavarta (lapis lazuli) as a maharasa in the place of capala. + Line 155:
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Line 115: − + − − + − == Chemistry in Minerals and Metals == − Many processes involved in extraction of metals from ores to their purification deal with advanced knowledge of chemistry. Many ancient and medieval texts reveal that people had this knowledge as outlined below.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> − [[File:Zawar Zinc Retorts.png|thumb|Zawar Zinc Mines in Rajasthan. Production of metallic zinc by Tiryakpatana yantra. ]] − * [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|'''Rasashastra''']]: The development of Rasashastra took place with regards to the processing and the use of heavy metals such as mercury, metals, minerals and many of their compounds for alchemical as well as therapeutic purposes. Many new methods/procedures/techniques for the treatment of mercury, metals/minerals were developed to convert these into pharmaceutically most suitable forms/compounds which are non-toxic, highly absorbable and most effective in therapeutics. Alchemical experiments (Lohavedha) were initially explored to remove poverty from the world by the monk of Buddhist order, Nagarjuna and his followers.<ref>Joshi, Damodar. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mercurial and Metallic Compunds: Page 256)</ref> − * '''Therapeutic Potential''': Although alchemic purposes of minerals were popular in earlier days, as Ayurveda developed utility of metals and minerals in therapeutics became prominent as seen in Charaka and Sushruta samhitas. Acharya Charaka mentioned three Maharasas (Makshika, Shilajatu and Sasyaka) and all eight Uparasas (Kankushta)<ref>''Charaka Samhita. Ayurveda Dipika Commentary by Chakrapanidutta.'' Varanasi: Chaukhambha Surbharati Prakashan (2000). (Chikitsa Sthana 7/111 pp 456).</ref> in his classic text. Interestingly, information on Sadharana rasas was not found in the classic. In addition to these minerals; information on certain salts (lavana dravya), alkaline substances (ksara dravyas) and calcium containing material (jantava dravya) etc. are also found described.<ref>Chandrashekhar. J., et. al., ''[https://www.academia.edu/38424308/Therapeutic_Potentials_of_Minerals_in_Ancient_India_A_Review_through_Charaka_Samhita Therapeutic Potentials of Minerals in Ancient India : A Review through Charaka Samhita.]'' J Res Edu Indian Med, Jan - Mar 2014; Vol. XX (1): 9-20</ref> − * '''Chemical Apparatus''': A large number of equipment, crucibles, furnaces etc., for processing of minerals and metals are described (Rasarnava). Rasaratnasamucchya contains description of several kinds of crucibles made of fireclay (vahnimrttika), funaces, implements and equipment to be used in the alchemical laboratory. − * '''Flame tests''': Specific colors of flames are due to specific salts of copper, tin, lead (Rasarnava 49). This test is also practiced in present day as preliminary test to identify the chemical compounds. − * '''Extraction of Copper''': Procedures were described for making copper metal from makshika (7.12-13) vimala (7.20-21) sasyaka (7.41-44) in Rasarnava text. While makshika and vimala are identified as pyrites (Copper pyrite ores) sasyaka is copper sulphate. All three products yielded Tamra or copper. Copper was discovered long before the Daltonian chemistry came into existence. − * '''Corrosion''': Six metals were arranged in the increasing order of corrosion (Rasarnava 7.89-90) - gold, silver, copper, iron, tin and lead. Sulphur was highly reactive with most of the metals.<ref name=":2" /> − * '''Chemical Processes''': Reduction-Oxidation in mineral-metal-metaloxide systems, conversion to sulphides were described in Rasaratnasamucchaya text. For preparation of pharmaceutical grade products for human consumption, many intermediary operations were described: purification of the mineral, metallic extraction (satvapaatana), liquefaction, distillation, incineration etc were performed. − * '''Preparation of Alloys''': Mishra-loha or mixed metals were prepared. Alloys of five metals (Pancha-loha) which is used till date to prepare auspicious idols and eight metals (ashtadhatu) were developed. − * '''Zinc Technology''': The Zawar zinc technology produced high-zinc (28%) brass alloy not produced anywhere else in the rest of the world. It is the earliest firm evidence for production of metallic zinc in the world. The zinc retorts found in Zawar were similar to those described in Rasaratnasamucchyaa and by Nagarjuna in his Rasaratnakara. The text gives details of the distillation process of zinc by tiryakpatanayantra (distillation by descending) which is totally an ingenious method where the zinc vapor formed after smelting zinc ore (in specifically designed retorts with condensers and furnaces) could be drastically cooled down to get a melt that could solidify to zinc metal.<ref name=":4">Srinivasan, Sharada and Ranganathan, Srinivasa. (2013) ''[http://eprints.nias.res.in/374/1/B8-2013%20Minerals%20and%20Metals%20Heritage%20of%20India.pdf Minerals and Metals Heritage of India.]'' Bangalore:National Institute of Advanced Studies.</ref> − * '''Bidri Alloy''': The alloy produced in the South Indian town of Bidar, contained Zinc (76-98%), Copper (2-10%), at times Lead (1-8%), tin (1-5%) and trace of Iron. Darkening of the Bidriware made was done by applying a paste of ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, sodium chloride and copper sulphate. Several impressive vessels, ewers, pitchers, vessels and huqqa bases were made of bidri ware with patterns influenced by the fine geometric and floral patterns and inlayed with gold and silver metals. − + Line 197:
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Rasayana Shastra (रसायनशास्त्रम्) (view source)
Revision as of 16:54, 10 June 2025
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== Origin and Properties of Matter ==
== Origin and Properties of Matter ==
Chemistry involves the study of fundamental properties of matter and atoms, and their inter-relationships. The Ayurvedic period constitutes the most flourishing and fruitful age of ancient India relating to the accumulation and development of chemical sciences which at that time was closely associated with medicine. The physical and chemical theories were intricately associated with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|srshti siddhantas]] propounded in the vedic, upanishadic and darshana shastras. Ayurveda was founded on the theories of cosmic evolution in [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|Darshanas]] most importantly of Samkhya and Vaiseshika.<ref name=":1" />
Chemistry dealt primarily with the composition and changes of matter and the underlying principles were deduced in a systematic and logical way purely based on thoughts with little or no experimental proofs. Yet many such theories, the products of intellectual perfection and sublime intuition, stand in good comparison with some of the most recent and advanced scientific ideas of the present time. Chemistry involves the study of fundamental properties of matter and atoms, and their inter-relationships. The Ayurvedic period constitutes the most flourishing and fruitful age of ancient India relating to the accumulation and development of chemical sciences which at that time was closely associated with medicine. The physical and chemical theories were intricately associated with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|srshti siddhantas]] propounded in the vedic, upanishadic and darshana shastras. Ayurveda was founded on the theories of cosmic evolution in [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|Darshanas]] most importantly of Samkhya and Vaiseshika.<ref name=":1" />
=== Cosmogenesis ===
=== Cosmogenesis ===
The Vedas take the universe to be infinite in size. The universe was visualized in the image of the cosmic egg, Brahmanda. Beyond our own universe lie other universes. Here we come across a few ancient concepts with particular reference to srshti (theories of cosmogenesis) and origin of jagat (universe) with respect to matter and particles and their connection with chemistry.
* Rig veda (10.121.1) mentions Hiranyagarbha reflecting the concept of cosmic egg and origin of universe from an egg.
* Rig veda (10.121.1) mentions Hiranyagarbha reflecting the concept of cosmic egg and origin of universe from an egg.
* Satapatha Brahmana (6.1.3.1-5) propounded a theory of material evolution.<ref name=":2" />
* Satapatha Brahmana (6.1.3.1-5) propounded a theory of material evolution.<ref name=":2" />
Hiranyagarbha signifies the 'golden womb' or source of creation. Described as the cosmic entity it represents the potential and creative force behind worldly existence. Hiranyagarbha is the Prana, the vital force, the first manifestation as per Chandogya Upanishad. The whole cosmos is governed and activated by Prana.<ref>''Chandogya Upanisad'' (S. Lokeswarananda, Trans.). (1995). Sri Ramakrishna Math.</ref>
Hiranyagarbha signifies the 'golden womb' or source of creation. Described as the cosmic entity it represents the potential and creative force behind worldly existence. Hiranyagarbha is the Prana, the vital force, the first manifestation as per Chandogya Upanishad. The whole cosmos is governed and activated by Prana.<ref>''Chandogya Upanisad'' (S. Lokeswarananda, Trans.). (1995). Sri Ramakrishna Math.</ref>
=== Atomistic Conception of Matter ===
=== Atomistic Conception of Matter ===
{{Main article|Atomic Theory of Ancient India (भारतीय परमाणु-विज्ञानम्)}}
Important concepts of physics and chemistry studied in modern times were proposed discussed and debated in ancient times primarily in [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] and [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika]] darshanas. Most notably enumeration of all knowable or sensorial objects called [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] are categorized and their attributes are described in [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]], [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]]-[[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika]], darshanas and in [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|Ayurveda]] samhitas.
The Samkhya theory posits that the world is a product of ordered evolution from an original undifferentiated Prakriti, and one becoming many. The Vaiseshika darshana propounds that the world arises out of atoms combining together in various ways, i.e., many becoming one.
=== Elemental nature of Matter ===
The Samkhya theory posits that the world is a product of ordered evolution from an original undifferentiated Prakriti, and one becoming many. The Vaiseshika darshana propounds that the world arises out of atoms combining together in various ways, i.e., many becoming one.
According to the Samkhya school's theory of matter,<ref name=":1" /> '''tanmatras''' are five subtle elements or infra-atomic particles imperceptible to the human senses as a result of continued differentiation and unequal aggregation of gunas from Prakriti as explained above during evolution. These subsequently gave rise, by the same process, to five grosser elements - the Panchamahabhutas namely, akasa (space or ether), vayu (air), tejas (fire), apa (water), and bhumi (earth). They are regarded as representing five abstract principles, or rather a classification of substances on the basis of their properties and states of aggregation. Earth, water and air may be viewed as comprising all the so-called elements or compounds of chemistry.
According to the Samkhya school's theory of matter,<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref> '''tanmatras''' are five subtle elements or infra-atomic particles imperceptible to the human senses as a result of continued differentiation and unequal aggregation of gunas from Prakriti as explained above during evolution. These subsequently gave rise, by the same process, to five grosser elements - the Panchamahabhutas namely, akasa (space or ether), vayu (air), tejas (fire), apa (water), and bhumi (earth). They are regarded as representing five abstract principles, or rather a classification of substances on the basis of their properties and states of aggregation. Earth, water and air may be viewed as comprising all the so-called elements or compounds of chemistry.
* Bhumi or kshiti typifies all solids
* Bhumi or kshiti typifies all solids
* Apa typifies all liquids
* Apa typifies all liquids
* Vayu typifies all gases
* Vayu typifies all gases
According to Samkhya, atoms (Anu-s) of these grosses elements are composite units made up of infra-atomic particles, the tanmatras.
According to Samkhya, atoms (Anu-s) of these grosses elements are composite units made up of infra-atomic particles, the tanmatras. The chemical theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system involves the theory of Anu-s or atoms comparable to the tanmatras of the Samkhya philosophy. The Samkhya virtually substantizes the “gunas”; the Vaiseshikas take them to be qualities which are always found in some dravya. According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. There are two states of anu- a state of motion and a state of absolute rest.
== Chemistry in Ancient India ==
== Chemistry in Ancient India ==
In ancient India, chemistry served medicine on one hand - in the preparation of a number of medicines—and technology on the other—for preparing colors, steels, cements, spirits, etc. While knowledge of metals and oxides was prevalent, of the metallic medicines, mercury was particularly popular. In Rigveda there is a mention of gold, silver, copper, bronze among metals or metallic objects.<ref name=":1" /> The Ramayana and the Mahabharata mention weapons with arrowheads coated with a variety of chemicals, indicating their knowledge of Alchemy. Various chemical processes generally described in the ancient treatises are those of extraction, purification, tempering, calcination, powdering, liquefying, precipitation, washing, drying, steaming, melting, filing, etc. Later, all these processes were applied to various metals, using special apparatuses or yantras and reagents and heating to different degrees—high, average and low.<ref>Chattopadhyaya, D. (1982). ''Studies in the history of science in India'' (Vol. 1). Editorial Enterprises.</ref> Chemistry was vigorously pursued in India during the Mahayana phase of activity of Buddhism as seen from the text Rasaratnakara ascribed to Acharya Nagarjuna.
In ancient India, chemistry served medicine on one hand - in the preparation of a number of medicines—and technology on the other—for preparing colors, steels, cements, spirits, etc. While knowledge of metals and oxides was prevalent, of the metallic medicines, mercury was particularly popular. In Rigveda there is a mention of gold, silver, copper, bronze among metals or metallic objects.<ref name=":1" /> The Ramayana and the Mahabharata mention weapons with arrowheads coated with a variety of chemicals, indicating their knowledge of Alchemy. Various chemical processes generally described in the ancient treatises are those of extraction, purification, tempering, calcination, powdering, liquefying, precipitation, washing, drying, steaming, melting, filing, etc. Later, all these processes were applied to various metals, using special apparatuses or yantras and reagents and heating to different degrees—high, average and low.<ref>Chattopadhyaya, D. (1982). ''Studies in the history of science in India'' (Vol. 1). Editorial Enterprises.</ref> Chemistry was vigorously pursued in India during the Mahayana phase of activity of Buddhism as seen from the text Rasaratnakara ascribed to Acharya Nagarjuna.
=== Classification of Chemical Substances ===
=== Classification of Chemical Substances ===
The well-known rasashastra texts like the Rasahrdaya, the Rasarnava, the Rasaratnasamuccaya and the Rasaprakasasudhakara have classified the chemical substances into<ref>Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 322-326</ref>
The well-known rasashastra texts like the Rasahrdaya, the Rasarnava, the Rasaratnasamuccaya and the Rasaprakasasudhakara have classified the chemical substances into<ref>Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 322-326</ref>
# '''Maharasas''': They are eight in number, abhraka (mica), vaikranta (a precious stone having eight surfaces and six angles, probably tourmaline), maksika (copper pyrites), vimala (iron pyrites), silajatu (bitumen), sasyaka (copper sulphate), capala (a compound of bismuth or selinium) and rasaka.
# '''Maharasas''': They are a group of minerals which have been recognized as most useful for the potentiation of the rasa namely [[Mercury or Parada (पारद)|Mercury or Parada]].<ref name=":9">Bhagwat, V. S. R., Kurkute, B. R., Shinde, B. T., & Tapare, S. K. (2017). CLASSIFICATION OF RASADRAVYAS IN RASASHASTRA. ''World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research'', ''6''(4), 792–802. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.20959/wjpr20174-8226</nowiki></ref> They are eight in number, Abhraka (Mica; Double silicate of aluminium and Potassium or sodium), Vaikranta (Tourmaline; K<sub>2</sub>OAl<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>6SiO<sub>2</sub>), Makshika (Chalcopyrite/Copper pyrite; Cu<sub>2</sub>S, Fe<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>), Vimala (Iron pyrite; Fe<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>), Shilajatu (Black bitumen or mineral pitch), Sasyaka (Copper sulphate/blue vitriol; CuSO<sub>4</sub> 7H<sub>2</sub>O), Rasaka (Zinc ore; ZnO, ZnS, ZnCO<sub>3</sub>), Chapala (Bismuth/selenium).
# '''Uparasa''': The eight uparasas are: gandhaka (sulphur), gairika (red ochre), kasisa (iron sulphate), tuvari (alum), talaka (orpiment), manah-sila (realgar), anjana (collyrium; compounds of antimony) and kankustha (probably tinstone or cassiterite).
# '''Uparasa''': These drugs are not equivalent to Parada, but properties of this group of drugs possess less gunas than Parada and indicate usefulness in different procedures of parada or its action towards parada.<ref name=":10">G. T., C., Geethesh, R. R., & Angadi, R. (2018). Collocation Of Rasa Dravyas – An Exploration. ''International Ayurvedic Medical Journal'', ''6''(9), 2102–2108. <nowiki>http://www.iamj.in/posts/images/upload/2102_2108.pdf</nowiki></ref> The eight uparasas are: Gandhaka (Sulphur; S), Gairika (Ochre; Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>), Kasisa (Ferrous sulphate/ green vitriol; FeSO<sub>4</sub>7H<sub>2</sub>O), Kankshi (Potash alum; K<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> Al<sub>2</sub>(SO)<sub>3</sub>24H<sub>2</sub>O), Haratala (Orpiment, yellow arsenic; As<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>), Manahshila (Realgar; As<sub>2</sub>S<sub>2</sub>), Anjana (Collyrium), Kankushta (Gambose tree extract).
# '''Dhatu''': Here usually seven metals are named: svarna (gold), rajata or tara (silver), tamra (copper), loha (iron), naga (lead), vanga (tin) and yasada (zinc). But, the three alloys (misraloha), viz. brass (pittala), bell-metal (kamsya) and a mixture of five metals (vartaka), also come under the category of dhatu. There are textual differences of which metals comprise metals. Rasarnava mentions six metals including copper but Rasaratnasamuccaya not according a place to copper among the dhatus.
# '''Dhatu''': Dhatus are the drugs which are been extracted (removed forcedly) from their ore, (by melting or process of distillation) similarly the diseases are removed forcedly from the body by them so they are called as Loha.<ref name=":9" /> Here usually seven metals are named: svarna (gold), rajata or tara (silver), tamra (copper), loha (iron), naga (lead), vanga (tin) and yasada (zinc). But, the three alloys (misraloha), viz. brass (pittala), bell-metal (kamsya) and a mixture of five metals (vartaka), also come under the category of dhatu. There are textual differences of which metals comprise metals. Rasarnava mentions six metals including copper but Rasaratnasamuccaya not according a place to copper among the dhatus.
# '''Ratna''': The ratnas generally are precious gems. The principal gems used by the rasavadins are: vaikranta (also classed under maharasa), suryakanta (sun-stone; aventurine feldspar mainly containing silicate of sodium and potassium with disseminated particles of red iron oxide which cause fire-like flashes of colour), candrakanta (moon-stone; a type of feldspar containing silicates of aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, etc., which possesses a bluish pearly opalescence), hiraka (diamond), mauktika (pearl), garudodgara (emerald), rajavarta (lapis lazuli), marakata (topaz), nila (sapphire) and padmaraga (ruby).
# '''Ratna''': The ratnas generally are precious gems. They are of mineral & animal origin which are found in rocks and are formed during the crust formation of the earth. They are durable, colorful & rare and the most valuable entity.<ref name=":10" /> These are classified on the basis of; structure, relation to the planets, opacity & transparency, beauty and scarcity. The principal gems used by the rasavadins are: vaikranta (also classed under maharasa), suryakanta (sun-stone; aventurine feldspar mainly containing silicate of sodium and potassium with disseminated particles of red iron oxide which cause fire-like flashes of colour), candrakanta (moon-stone; a type of feldspar containing silicates of aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, etc., which possesses a bluish pearly opalescence), hiraka (diamond), mauktika (pearl), garudodgara (emerald), rajavarta (lapis lazuli), marakata (topaz), nila (sapphire) and padmaraga (ruby).
# '''Visha'''
# '''Visha:''' Rasarnava appears to be the first text to mention about Visha and Upavisa classification. They are useful in rasakarma and rasabandhana. Rasamanjari, Rasendrachintamani, Rasa jala nidhi have explained 18 kanda visha. They are- Kalakuta, Saktuka, Vatsanabha, Shringika, Mustaka, Halahala, Haridra, Mayura, Binduka, Sunama, Shankhanabha, Sumangala, Pushkara, Bhramara, Karkotaka, Shuklakanda, Raktashringi, Visha or Chakra.<ref name=":10" />
# '''Sadharana rasas''': It is explained only by Rasaratnasamuchaya. They are Kampillaka (Mallotus philippinesis Muell-arg), Gouripashana (Arsenious oxide; As2O3), Navasadara (Ammonium chloride; NH2Cl), Kapardika (Cowries), Agnijara (Amber), Girisindura (Red oxide of mercury; HgO), Hingula (Cinnabar; HgS), Mruddarashringa (Litharge; PbO).
# '''Sadharana rasas''': It is explained only by Rasaratnasamuchaya.<ref name=":9" /> They are Kampillaka (Mallotus philippinesis Muell-arg), Gouripashana (Arsenious oxide; As<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>), Navasadara (Ammonium chloride; NH<sub>2</sub>Cl), Kapardika (Cowries), Agnijara (Amber), Girisindura (Red oxide of mercury; HgO), Hingula (Cinnabar; HgS), Mruddarashringa (Litharge; PbO).<ref name=":10" />
According to tradition, the maharasas and the uparasas are classified in the order in which they find their usefulness with reference to mercury (rasendra). There is also a view that mercury alone has the appellation of rasa, and all the others are called uparasas. Some of the texts differ from one another in the number of maha- and uparasas as well as the substances comprising them. While the Rasaratnasamuccaya gives the above classification, the Rasaprakasasudhakara, considers rajavarta (lapis lazuli) as a maharasa in the place of capala.
=== Yantras ===
=== Yantras ===
## '''Cosmetics and perfumes''': Brhatsamhita mentions a large number of references to cosmetics and perfumes used in worship and for human enjoyment. The Bower Manuscript (Navanitaka) contained recipes of hair dyes which consisted of a number of plants like indigo and minerals like iron powder, black iron or steel and acidic extracts of sour rice gruel. Gandhayukti gave recipes for making scents, mouth perfumes, bath powders, incense and talcum powder.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Cosmetics and perfumes''': Brhatsamhita mentions a large number of references to cosmetics and perfumes used in worship and for human enjoyment. The Bower Manuscript (Navanitaka) contained recipes of hair dyes which consisted of a number of plants like indigo and minerals like iron powder, black iron or steel and acidic extracts of sour rice gruel. Gandhayukti gave recipes for making scents, mouth perfumes, bath powders, incense and talcum powder.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Paper and Ink industry''': In ancient India knowledge spread verbally through the word of mouth from the teacher to the disciple, hence it was called Shruti. But with the discovery of scripts, written records gradually replaced the verbal transmission of thought.<ref>Tiwari, L. (n.d.). ''History of paper technology in India''.</ref> Paper, as a writing material, was hardly known in India before the 11th century AD. Al-Biruni writes, "it was in China that paper was first manufactured, Chinese prisoners introduced the fabrication of paper in Samarkand, and thereupon it was made in various places, so as to meet the existing want".
## '''Paper and Ink industry''': In ancient India knowledge spread verbally through the word of mouth from the teacher to the disciple, hence it was called Shruti. But with the discovery of scripts, written records gradually replaced the verbal transmission of thought.<ref>Tiwari, L. (n.d.). ''History of paper technology in India''.</ref> Paper, as a writing material, was hardly known in India before the 11th century AD. Al-Biruni writes, "it was in China that paper was first manufactured, Chinese prisoners introduced the fabrication of paper in Samarkand, and thereupon it was made in various places, so as to meet the existing want".
## '''Fermentation technology''': Approximately 610 Mantras of ninth Maṇḍala of Ṛgveda says that they were preparing drinks like Soma (Ṛgveda-1.116.7& 10.119.3) by the process of fermentation and the same was used in several religions ceremonies and social gatherings.<ref name=":6" /> Barks of plants, stem, flower, leaves, woods, cereals, fruits and sugarcane were some of the sources for making these liquors.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Fermentation technology''': Approximately 610 Mantras of ninth Maṇḍala of Ṛgveda says that they were preparing drinks like Soma (Ṛgveda-1.116.7& 10.119.3) by the process of fermentation and the same was used in several religions ceremonies and social gatherings.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref> Barks of plants, stem, flower, leaves, woods, cereals, fruits and sugarcane were some of the sources for making these liquors.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Building materials''': Mortar and Cement using limestone, gypsum and their modified forms
## '''Building materials''': Mortar and Cement using limestone, gypsum and their modified forms are mentioned as the building materials used in ancient times.
## '''Tanning of leather:'''
## '''Tanning of leather:'''
# [[Mineralogy (धातुशास्त्रम्)]] or the study of Minerals, broadly involves mining of metal ores such as those of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, zinc and iron and preparation of alloys such as bronze, and brass. A very comprehensive account of ores, minerals and metals with their extraction and working, their alloys is found in the Arthashastra. There was wide usage of metals for ornaments, utensils, warfare weaponry, coinage, and preparation of medicines.
# [[Mineralogy (धातुशास्त्रम्)]] or the study of Minerals, broadly involves mining of metal ores such as those of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, zinc and iron and preparation of alloys such as bronze, and brass. A very comprehensive account of ores, minerals and metals with their extraction and working, their alloys is found in the Arthashastra. There was wide usage of metals for ornaments, utensils, warfare weaponry, coinage, and preparation of medicines.
=== Dyes, Mordants and Pigments ===
=== Dyes, Mordants and Pigments ===
Main article
{{Main article|Chemistry of Dyeing (रञ्जनम्)}}
Archeological and literary evidences prove that the art of dyeing was practiced since early days of Indian civilization. A dye is a colored substance which imparts more or less permanent color to other materials. Colored substances usually organic chemical compounds were used for textile dyeing. Dyes which are prepared in the form of powder, paste or solution are utilized generally in coloring cotton, wool, silk and cloth of natural fibres, in cosmetics and manufacture of ink etc. Many soluble dyes are converted into pigments by forming insoluble salts (ex - by replacing sodium in a dye salt with calcium) for use in lacquers, paints etc. Dyes were also used for artificial coloring of food items and soft drinks. They are also used for coloring hair, fur, metals etc.
Archeological and literary evidences prove that the art of dyeing was practiced since early days of Indian civilization. A dye is a colored substance which imparts more or less permanent color to other materials. Colored substances usually organic chemical compounds were used for textile dyeing. Dyes which are prepared in the form of powder, paste or solution are utilized generally in coloring cotton, wool, silk and cloth of natural fibres, in cosmetics and manufacture of ink etc. Many soluble dyes are converted into pigments by forming insoluble salts (ex - by replacing sodium in a dye salt with calcium) for use in lacquers, paints etc. Dyes were also used for artificial coloring of food items and soft drinks. They are also used for coloring hair, fur, metals etc.
=== Glass Industry ===
=== Glass Industry ===
Main article Glass (काचः)
{{Main article|Glass (काचः)}}
Generally, glass is produced by melting a mixture of silica (sand: about 75%), soda (about 15%) and calcium compound (lime: about 10%) with the desired metallic oxides that serve as coloring agents.<ref>Story of Glass in India & the World by Pankaj Goyal</ref> Origin of glass is shrouded in mystery and scholars note that it is difficult to pinpoint the exact period. Modern archeological evidence proved that Mesapotamia, Egypt and India made various siliceous and glazed materials including faience (glazed siliceous ware), glazed pottery and glass.<ref name=":8" />
Generally, glass is produced by melting a mixture of silica (sand: about 75%), soda (about 15%) and calcium compound (lime: about 10%) with the desired metallic oxides that serve as coloring agents.<ref>Story of Glass in India & the World by Pankaj Goyal</ref> Origin of glass is shrouded in mystery and scholars note that it is difficult to pinpoint the exact period. Modern archeological evidence proved that Mesapotamia, Egypt and India made various siliceous and glazed materials including faience (glazed siliceous ware), glazed pottery and glass.<ref name=":8" />
== Fermentation Technology ==
=== Fermentation Technology ===
Fermentation is a particular method of digesting of selected substances that leads to chemical transformation of organic substances into simpler compounds by the action of fement.<ref name=":7">Mira Roy. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Fermentation Technology : Page 437)</ref>
Fermentation is a particular method of digesting of selected substances that leads to chemical transformation of organic substances into simpler compounds by the action of fement.<ref name=":7">Mira Roy. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Fermentation Technology : Page 437)</ref>
* Prasanna from the fermentation of flour with the addition of spices and fruits
* Prasanna from the fermentation of flour with the addition of spices and fruits
* Asava is derived from fermentation of sugar mixed with honey
* Asava is derived from fermentation of sugar mixed with honey
* Arista
* Arista
* Maireya is derived from fermentation of jaggery mixed with long and black pepper or triphala (ayurvedic preparation)
* Maireya is derived from fermentation of jaggery mixed with long and black pepper or triphala (ayurvedic preparation)
* Madhu is obtained from fermentation of grapes
* Madhu is obtained from fermentation of grapes
Kinva or ferment is prepared from boiled or unboiled paste of masha (Phaseolus radiatus), rice and morata (Alangium salviifolium) and the like.
Kinva or ferment is prepared from boiled or unboiled paste of masha (Phaseolus radiatus), rice and morata (Alangium salviifolium) and the like.
== Chemistry in Minerals and Metals ==
Many processes involved in extraction of metals from ores to their purification deal with advanced knowledge of chemistry. Many ancient and medieval texts reveal that people had this knowledge as outlined below.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" />
[[File:Zawar Zinc Retorts.png|thumb|Zawar Zinc Mines in Rajasthan. Production of metallic zinc by Tiryakpatana yantra. ]]
* [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|'''Rasashastra''']]: The development of Rasashastra took place with regards to the processing and the use of heavy metals such as mercury, metals, minerals and many of their compounds for alchemical as well as therapeutic purposes. Many new methods/procedures/techniques for the treatment of mercury, metals/minerals were developed to convert these into pharmaceutically most suitable forms/compounds which are non-toxic, highly absorbable and most effective in therapeutics. Alchemical experiments (Lohavedha) were initially explored to remove poverty from the world by the monk of Buddhist order, Nagarjuna and his followers.<ref>Joshi, Damodar. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mercurial and Metallic Compunds: Page 256)</ref>
* '''Therapeutic Potential''': Although alchemic purposes of minerals were popular in earlier days, as Ayurveda developed utility of metals and minerals in therapeutics became prominent as seen in Charaka and Sushruta samhitas. Acharya Charaka mentioned three Maharasas (Makshika, Shilajatu and Sasyaka) and all eight Uparasas (Kankushta)<ref>''Charaka Samhita. Ayurveda Dipika Commentary by Chakrapanidutta.'' Varanasi: Chaukhambha Surbharati Prakashan (2000). (Chikitsa Sthana 7/111 pp 456).</ref> in his classic text. Interestingly, information on Sadharana rasas was not found in the classic. In addition to these minerals; information on certain salts (lavana dravya), alkaline substances (ksara dravyas) and calcium containing material (jantava dravya) etc. are also found described.<ref>Chandrashekhar. J., et. al., ''[https://www.academia.edu/38424308/Therapeutic_Potentials_of_Minerals_in_Ancient_India_A_Review_through_Charaka_Samhita Therapeutic Potentials of Minerals in Ancient India : A Review through Charaka Samhita.]'' J Res Edu Indian Med, Jan - Mar 2014; Vol. XX (1): 9-20</ref>
* '''Chemical Apparatus''': A large number of equipment, crucibles, furnaces etc., for processing of minerals and metals are described (Rasarnava). Rasaratnasamucchya contains description of several kinds of crucibles made of fireclay (vahnimrttika), funaces, implements and equipment to be used in the alchemical laboratory.
* '''Flame tests''': Specific colors of flames are due to specific salts of copper, tin, lead (Rasarnava 49). This test is also practiced in present day as preliminary test to identify the chemical compounds. According to Rasarnava - copper gives blue flame; tin, pigeon-colored; lead, pale; iron, tawny color of flame.
* '''Extraction of Copper''': Procedures were described for making copper metal from makshika (7.12-13) vimala (7.20-21) sasyaka (7.41-44) in Rasarnava text. While makshika and vimala are identified as pyrites (Copper pyrite ores) sasyaka is copper sulphate. All three products yielded Tamra or copper. Copper was discovered long before the Daltonian chemistry came into existence.
* '''Corrosion''': Six metals were arranged in the increasing order of corrosion (Rasarnava 7.89-90) - gold, silver, copper, iron, tin and lead. Sulphur was highly reactive with most of the metals.<ref name=":2" />
* '''Chemical Processes''': Reduction-Oxidation in mineral-metal-metaloxide systems, conversion to sulphides were described in Rasaratnasamucchaya text. For preparation of pharmaceutical grade products for human consumption, many intermediary operations were described: purification of the mineral, metallic extraction (satvapaatana), liquefaction, distillation, incineration etc were performed.
* '''Preparation of Alloys''': Mishra-loha or mixed metals were prepared. Alloys of five metals (Pancha-loha) which is used till date to prepare auspicious idols and eight metals (ashtadhatu) were developed.
* '''Zinc Technology''': The Zawar zinc technology produced high-zinc (28%) brass alloy not produced anywhere else in the rest of the world. It is the earliest firm evidence for production of metallic zinc in the world. The zinc retorts found in Zawar were similar to those described in Rasaratnasamucchyaa and by Nagarjuna in his Rasaratnakara. The text gives details of the distillation process of zinc by tiryakpatanayantra (distillation by descending) which is totally an ingenious method where the zinc vapor formed after smelting zinc ore (in specifically designed retorts with condensers and furnaces) could be drastically cooled down to get a melt that could solidify to zinc metal.<ref name=":4">Srinivasan, Sharada and Ranganathan, Srinivasa. (2013) ''[http://eprints.nias.res.in/374/1/B8-2013%20Minerals%20and%20Metals%20Heritage%20of%20India.pdf Minerals and Metals Heritage of India.]'' Bangalore:National Institute of Advanced Studies.</ref>
* '''Bidri Alloy''': The alloy produced in the South Indian town of Bidar, contained Zinc (76-98%), Copper (2-10%), at times Lead (1-8%), tin (1-5%) and trace of Iron. Darkening of the Bidriware made was done by applying a paste of ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, sodium chloride and copper sulphate. Several impressive vessels, ewers, pitchers, vessels and huqqa bases were made of bidri ware with patterns influenced by the fine geometric and floral patterns and inlayed with gold and silver metals.
== Purification Processes in Ayurveda ==
The detoxification or purification process of any toxic material used for medicinal purposes is termed as “''Śodhana''”. The process is specially designed for the drugs from mineral origin; however, it is recommended for all kinds of drugs to remove their ''doṣās'' (impurities or toxic content). The concept of ''Śodhana'' in Ayurveda not only covers the process of purification/detoxifcation of physical as well as chemical impurities but also covers the minimization of side effects and improving the potency/therapeutic efficacy of the purified drugs.<ref>Maurya, S. K., Seth, A., Laloo, D., Singh, N. K., Singh Gautam, D. N., & Singh, A. K. (2015). Śodhana: An Ayurvedic process for detoxification and modification of therapeutic activities of poisonous medicinal plants. ''Ancient Science of Life'', ''34''(4), 188. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.4103/0257-7941.160862</nowiki></ref> The minerals or metals are invariably subjected to purification processes in Ayurvedic preparations and the processes are complicated ones. Though these processes are meant for ‘purifying’ the substances, more often than naught, some extraneous material is added onto them. In general, purification means, according to the rasasastra texts, removal of the deleterious principles present in the naturally occurring substances, so that they become fit for internal use.<ref name=":8" /> Examples include
# '''Sulphur''' is purified by melting it in the medium of cow’s ghee and straining the molten mass through a cloth into milk or the juice of Bhrhgaraja kept in a pot. It is then washed with warm water and the process is repeated several times. Purification of sulphur is considered necessary as otherwise the impure sulphur, when taken in, would produce harmful effects such as loss of beauty, strength and vision. There are many methods for purification of sulphur using various materials.
# '''Mica''' is purified by heating it strongly and adding the hot powdered substance into a mixture of sour gruel, cow’s urine, decoction of the three myrobalans, cow’s milk, etc and the process is repeated seven times.
# '''Vaikranta''' is purified by boiling it with the decoction of kulattha (horsegram).
# Purification of '''mercury''' involves eight to eighteen methods. Mercury is purified by rubbing it for three days with the decoction of certain plants like kuman (Aloe indica), citraka (Plumbago zeylanica) and red mustard, or by rubbing it with lime and filtering through a cloth. Thereafter it is again rubbed with some quantity of garlic and common salt, and washed.
# The '''gems''' are purified by subjecting them to the action of the ‘vapours’ of a plant called jayanti.
It should be noted that these methods form the basis of purification of materials in Ayurvedic preparations and are lately studied for the chemical processes involved in them.
== References ==
== References ==
[[Category:Shastras]]
[[Category:Shastras]]
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<references />