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Plants and human beings have an intimate relationship and it is well recognized since ancient times. Science in general and plant science in particular is an integral part of the Vēdas. Plants give oxygen, food and medicines to human beings and hence have to be protected at all times. References to the cultivation of cereals, such as wheat, barley, rice and ragi in the Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas-Upanishads bear ample testimony to the importance of plants as food and the development of agriculture in the Vedic times. Vedic seers were well known for their reverence to nature and natural forces and their eco-centric lifestyle is evident in the mantras of Rigveda. Yajna being the subject matter of the Vedas, there is no ritualistic activity in yajnas without the usage of a plant product.<ref name=":3">Boddupalli, R. S. (2021). Traditional knowledge of botany and agriculture revealed in the Vēda Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇās, Araṇyakās and Upaniṣads. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge'', ''20''(1), 284–297.</ref>  

Plants and human beings have an intimate relationship and it is well recognized since ancient times. Science in general and plant science in particular is an integral part of the Vēdas. Plants give oxygen, food and medicines to human beings and hence have to be protected at all times. References to the cultivation of cereals, such as wheat, barley, rice and ragi in the Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas-Upanishads bear ample testimony to the importance of plants as food and the development of agriculture in the Vedic times. Vedic seers were well known for their reverence to nature and natural forces and their eco-centric lifestyle is evident in the mantras of Rigveda. Yajna being the subject matter of the Vedas, there is no ritualistic activity in yajnas without the usage of a plant product.<ref name=":3">Boddupalli, R. S. (2021). Traditional knowledge of botany and agriculture revealed in the Vēda Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇās, Araṇyakās and Upaniṣads. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge'', ''20''(1), 284–297.</ref>

==परिचयः ॥ Introduction==

==परिचयः ॥ Introduction==

Vrksha or tree is the symbol of life and growth. It stands for eternity and selfless well-being. [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|The four vedas]], describe many herbs, vines, shrubs and tree species used in [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajnas]]. Vajasaneya Samhita advocates reverence and devotion to trees and grains, medicinal herbs, forests, and vegetation; they are regarded as deities or devatas who are bestowed with the quality of selfless giving.<ref name=":4">Boddupalli, R. S. (2019). Project Report: Plant Biology of Yajurveda. ''Indian Journal of History of Science'', ''54''(2). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.16943/ijhs/2019/v54i2/49668</nowiki></ref>

Vrksha or tree is the symbol of life and growth. It stands for eternity and selfless well-being. [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|The four vedas]], describe many herbs, vines, shrubs, grasses<ref>Boddupalli, R. (2024). Traditional knowledge of Vedic grasses - Their significance and medicinal uses. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge'', ''23''(3). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.56042/ijtk.v23i3.832</nowiki></ref> and tree species used in [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajnas]]. Vajasaneya Samhita advocates reverence and devotion to trees and grains, medicinal herbs, forests, and vegetation; they are regarded as deities or devatas who are bestowed with the quality of selfless giving.<ref name=":4">Boddupalli, R. S. (2019). Project Report: Plant Biology of Yajurveda. ''Indian Journal of History of Science'', ''54''(2). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.16943/ijhs/2019/v54i2/49668</nowiki></ref>

Archeological evidence for the prehistoric use of botanical products in the Indian sub-continent, is scanty and scattered and does not allow a chronological history of the uses of plants. The oldest record of such use is from the site of Indus Valley civilization, in which cereals (wheat, barley, rice and ragi), woods and other plant products were used.<ref name=":1">Chowdhury, K. A. 1971. Botany: Prehistoric Period. In ''A Concise History of Science in India'' (Eds.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 371-375.</ref> The Indus Valley people used to live in villages, cities and towns, wore clothes, cultivated crops including wheat, barley, millet, dates, vegetables, melon and other fruits and cotton; worshipped trees, glazed their pottery with the juice of plants and painted them with a large number of plant designs.<ref name=":5">[https://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_tiwar_botany_frameset.htm Ancient Indian Botany and Taxonomy by Lalit Tiwari]</ref>

Archeological evidence for the prehistoric use of botanical products in the Indian sub-continent, is scanty and scattered and does not allow a chronological history of the uses of plants. The oldest record of such use is from the site of Indus Valley civilization, in which cereals (wheat, barley, rice and ragi), woods and other plant products were used.<ref name=":1">Chowdhury, K. A. 1971. Botany: Prehistoric Period. In ''A Concise History of Science in India'' (Eds.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 371-375.</ref> The Indus Valley people used to live in villages, cities and towns, wore clothes, cultivated crops including wheat, barley, millet, dates, vegetables, melon and other fruits and cotton; worshipped trees, glazed their pottery with the juice of plants and painted them with a large number of plant designs.<ref name=":5">[https://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_tiwar_botany_frameset.htm Ancient Indian Botany and Taxonomy by Lalit Tiwari]</ref>

* ओषधीरिति मातरस्तद्वो देवीरुप ब्रुवे । सनेयमश्वं गां वास आत्मानं तव पूरुष ॥४॥ O plant! I hail you, the divine mother (of mankind).

* ओषधीरिति मातरस्तद्वो देवीरुप ब्रुवे । सनेयमश्वं गां वास आत्मानं तव पूरुष ॥४॥ O plant! I hail you, the divine mother (of mankind).

=== Rigveda ===

=== ऋग्वेदः ॥ Rigveda ===

The [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]] has frequent references to the use of the plough, the sowing of seeds, the cutting of corn with the sickle, the threshing and winnowing of the corn, the practice of channel irrigation and the like. Agricultural pursuits definitely made further progress as is evidenced by the use of larger and heavier plough, mention of several types of agricultural produce such as wheat, beans, corn, sesamum, extraction of oil from sesamum, relationship between seasons and the harvest, plant diseases and some attempt to deal with them with magical spell.<ref name=":2" /> The terms like Vriksha (trees), Oshadhi (herbs), lata (creepers), gulma (shrub), bheshaja (medicinal plants) occur frequently in the mantras.  

The [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]] has frequent references to the use of the plough, the sowing of seeds, the cutting of corn with the sickle, the threshing and winnowing of the corn, the practice of channel irrigation and the like. Agricultural pursuits definitely made further progress as is evidenced by the use of larger and heavier plough, mention of several types of agricultural produce such as wheat, beans, corn, sesamum, extraction of oil from sesamum, relationship between seasons and the harvest, plant diseases and some attempt to deal with them with magical spell.<ref name=":2" /> The terms like Vriksha (trees), Oshadhi (herbs), lata (creepers), gulma (shrub), bheshaja (medicinal plants) occur frequently in the mantras.  

Indus Valley archeological findings further record the use of wood particularly deodar (Cedrus deodara) and rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia) for a coffin, and Indian jujube or ber in Hindi (Zizyphus jujuba) for a wooden mortar for pounding grains. Choice of these woods for specific purposes shows not only knowledge of where the trees grow but also of the characteristic qualities of the woods used. Timbers recovered from Lothal in Gujarat were of Acacia sps., Tectona grandis, Adina cordifolia indicate that the Harappans knew of the quality of these timbers nearly as much as we know of them today.<ref name=":1" />

Indus Valley archeological findings further record the use of wood particularly deodar (Cedrus deodara) and rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia) for a coffin, and Indian jujube or ber in Hindi (Zizyphus jujuba) for a wooden mortar for pounding grains. Choice of these woods for specific purposes shows not only knowledge of where the trees grow but also of the characteristic qualities of the woods used. Timbers recovered from Lothal in Gujarat were of Acacia sps., Tectona grandis, Adina cordifolia indicate that the Harappans knew of the quality of these timbers nearly as much as we know of them today.<ref name=":1" />

=== Yajurveda ===

=== यजुर्वेदः ॥ Yajurveda ===

The trees and plants revealed in the Vēdas are the key for the ritualistic activities or yajñas. Initiating any yajña begins primarily with the covering of the yajñavēdi (yajña alter) with the darbha [Desmostachya bipinnata], which is a grass. Several implements used in yajñas are manufactured from the wood of specified trees was described in [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]]. Yajñas and yāgās being the fundamental characteristics of the Yajurveda, involved extensive usage of plant products. The names of plants, trees and their products that are specifically used in the yajñas, yāgās, hōmās and iṣṭis are elaborately described in the Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇās.<ref name=":3" />

The trees and plants revealed in the Vēdas are the key for the ritualistic activities or yajñas. Initiating any yajña begins primarily with the covering of the yajñavēdi (yajña alter) with the darbha [Desmostachya bipinnata], which is a grass. Several implements used in yajñas are manufactured from the wood of specified trees was described in [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]]. Yajñas and yāgās being the fundamental characteristics of the Yajurveda, involved extensive usage of plant products. The names of plants, trees and their products that are specifically used in the yajñas, yāgās, hōmās and iṣṭis are elaborately described in the Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇās.<ref name=":3" />

[[File:Samidhas cherished by Agni.png|thumb|Seven samidhas of importance in yajñas]]

[[File:Samidhas cherished by Agni.png|thumb|Seven samidhas of importance in yajñas]]

Several botanical terms are described in the four Vēdas and particularly in the Yajurvēda. The Taittriya Samhita and the Vajasaneya Samhita describe and explain that plants comprise of various parts and the botanical terms mentioned are identified with those modern botany. Classifying plants according to their vegetative and reproductive properties, form and growth is similar to that of the modern classifications of the plant kingdom by Carolus Linnaeus and others. Another interesting feature noticed in the Vajasaneya Samhita, Taittriya Brahmana and Atharvaveda is the description of an entire region by the type of plants growing in that area, e.g. naḍvala (a place abounding in reeds), śipālya (a region where the plant śipala grows).<ref name=":4" />

Several botanical terms are described in the four Vēdas and particularly in the Yajurvēda. The Taittriya Samhita and the Vajasaneya Samhita describe and explain that plants comprise of various parts and the botanical terms mentioned are identified with those modern botany. Classifying plants according to their vegetative and reproductive properties, form and growth is similar to that of the modern classifications of the plant kingdom by Carolus Linnaeus and others. Another interesting feature noticed in the Vajasaneya Samhita, Taittriya Brahmana and Atharvaveda is the description of an entire region by the type of plants growing in that area, e.g. naḍvala (a place abounding in reeds), śipālya (a region where the plant śipala grows).<ref name=":4" />

=== Atharvaveda ===

The growing acquaintance with plant life is further reflected in the appreciation of the medicinal properties of plants and in the appearance of a class of Atharvan priests specializing in the herbal treatment of diseases.<ref name=":2" /> In [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] the type, shape and morphology of plants is described making it the earliest recorded authority on plant morphology. Atharvaveda sukta (8.7.12) elaborately describes various plant parts and its medicinal values to remove human ailments, thus throwing light on the fact that plant medicines where highly developed since ancient times.<ref name=":3" />

 

=== अथर्ववेदः ॥ Atharvaveda ===

The growing acquaintance with plant life is further reflected in the appreciation of the medicinal properties of plants and in the appearance of a class of Atharvan priests specializing in the herbal treatment of diseases.<ref name=":2" /> In [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] the type, shape and morphology of plants is described making it the earliest recorded authority on plant morphology. Atharvaveda's Oshadhi sukta (8.7.12) elaborately describes various plant parts and its medicinal values to remove human ailments, thus throwing light on the fact that plant medicines where highly developed since ancient times.<ref name=":3" />

== Plants are Living Beings ==

== Plants are Living Beings ==

Plants have been regarded as having sensitivity, feelings and the elemental nature of plants are described in the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata. In the Bharadvaja Bhrigu Samvada, Maharshi Bharadwaja asks that since trees can neither see nor hear, nor smell, no feel pleasure, nor have a sense of touch, how then are they animate or living and how are they constituted by the five elements or panchabhutas? (Mahabharata Shan. Parv. 184.6-9)<ref>Sastri, R. (2009). [https://archive.org/details/mahabharat05ramauoft/page/4893/mode/1up ''Mahabharata: Vol. 5 Shanti Parva''.] </ref><blockquote>भरद्वाज उवाच।

Plants have been regarded as having sensitivity, feelings and the elemental nature of plants are described in the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata. In the Bharadvaja Bhrigu Samvada, Maharshi Bharadwaja asks that since trees can neither see nor hear, nor smell, no feel pleasure, nor have a sense of touch, how then are they animate or living and how are they constituted by the five elements or panchabhutas? (Mahabharata Shan. Parv. 184.6-9)<ref>Sastri, R. (2009). [https://archive.org/details/mahabharat05ramauoft/page/4893/mode/1up ''Mahabharata: Vol. 5 Shanti Parva''.] </ref><blockquote>भरद्वाज उवाच।

# उत्स्रोतसः - ऊर्द्ध्वं स्रोत आहारसञ्चारो येषां ते । the process of uptake of food from below (from the ground) through upward channels  

# उत्स्रोतसः - ऊर्द्ध्वं स्रोत आहारसञ्चारो येषां ते । the process of uptake of food from below (from the ground) through upward channels  

# तमःप्रायाः - अव्यक्तचैतन्याः । dormancy of consciousness due to [[Tamas (तमः)|tamas]] guna

# तमःप्रायाः - अव्यक्तचैतन्याः । dormancy of consciousness due to [[Tamas (तमः)|tamas]] guna

# अन्तःस्पर्शाः - स्पर्शमेव जानन्ति नान्यत्तदापि अन्तरेव न बहिः । have an inner feeling  

# अन्तःस्पर्शाः - स्पर्शमेव जानन्ति नान्यत्तदापि अन्तरेव न बहिः । have an inner feeling (consciousness)

# विशेषिणः - of many varieties

# विशेषिणः - of many varieties

==== Morphological characteristics ====

==== Morphological characteristics ====

Morphological features were well identified in Indian treatises.<ref name=":8" />   

Morphological features were well identified in Indian treatises.<ref name=":8" />   

* shape and color of flowers (e.g. vakrapushpa or Sesbania grandifolia with papilionaceous flowers),  

* shape and color of flowers (e.g. vakrapushpa or Sesbania grandifolia with papilionaceous flowers),  

* other characteristics like Sataparvika or grasses having hundred (many) joints in its stem, apushpaphalada refers to jackfruit where fruits arise without (apparent) flowers.

* other characteristics like Sataparvika or grasses having hundred (many) joints in its stem, apushpaphalada refers to jackfruit where fruits arise without (apparent) flowers.

==== Physiological characteristics ====

==== Physiological characteristics ====