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Shabdabodha (Samskrit : शाब्दबोधः) refers to the awareness and information of things hitherto unknown (to the listeners), to convey which, a speaker utters words generated by shabda arranged in intelligible sentences. The awareness generated by such shabda — in the form of a sentence – is called "Shabdabodha", which is cognition of sentence meaning or awareness of the relation (of word-meanings). Almost all schools of darshanas, vyakarana and alankara shastras have dealt with this topic extensively.<ref name=":0">Dr. N. S. Ramanuja Tatacharya. (2005) ''[https://archive.org/details/ShabdaBodhamimansaAnInquiryIntoIndianTheoriesOfVerbalCognitionN.S.RamanujaTatacharya/page/n39 Shabdabodhamimamsa. An Inquiry into Indian Theories of Verbal Cognition. Volume 1: The Sentence and its Significance.]'' New Delhi : Rastriya Sanskrit Samsthan</ref>

Shabdabodha (Samskrit : शाब्दबोधः) refers to the awareness and information of things hitherto unknown (to the listeners), to convey which, a speaker utters words generated by shabda arranged in intelligible sentences. The awareness generated by such shabda — in the form of a sentence – is called "Shabdabodha", which is cognition of sentence meaning or awareness of the relation (of word-meanings). Almost all schools of darshanas, vyakarana and alankara shastras have dealt with this topic extensively.<ref name=":0">Dr. N. S. Ramanuja Tatacharya. (2005) ''[https://archive.org/details/sabdabodhamimamsaramanujatatacharyan.s.vol2frenchinstitute_858_R/mode/2up Shabdabodhamimamsa. An Inquiry into Indian Theories of Verbal Cognition. Volume 1: The Sentence and its Significance.]'' New Delhi : Rastriya Sanskrit Samsthan</ref>

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

Language is an instrument of communication of thought and the concept of Shabda is the very foundation of theories of language. They deal with the concepts pertaining to sound (including letters, words and sentences), its origin, qualities, relationship with listener and its validity as a pramana. Hence understanding a word and subsequent knowledge-from-word forms the basis of Shabdabodha. Shabda according to various texts broadly refer to meaningful "words (शब्दाः)", and their combination in the form of "sentences (वाक्यं)". While individual words have their meanings, the process through which the cognition of the sentence-meaning arises, involves processes such as yogyata (योग्यता । fitness) akanksha (आकाङ्क्षा । expectancy), aasatti (आसत्तिः । proximity) and tatparya (तात्पर्यम् । import). Alankarikas such as Vishvanatha have clearly defined a sentence as that group of words having yogyata, akanksha and aasatti. <blockquote>वाक्यं स्याद्योग्यताकाङ्क्षासत्तियुक्तः पदोच्चयः । (Sahi. Darp. 2.1)<ref>Sahitya Darpana by Vishvanatha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4 Pariccheda 2])</ref></blockquote>Bharthari says: <blockquote>अर्थप्रवृत्तितत्त्वानां शब्दा एव निबन्धनम् । तत्त्वावबोधः शब्दानां नास्ति व्याकरणादृते ।। 13 ।। (Vaky. Brah. 13)<ref>Vakyapadiyam by Bhartrhari ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83_%E0 Brahmakaanda])</ref></blockquote>It is words that form the bases of meanings, purposes, activities and truth. Knowledge of Vyakarana is the only recourse to understand the truth (तत्त्वावबोधः) embedded in the shabda.<ref name=":0" />

Language is an instrument of communication of thought and the concept of Shabda is the very foundation of theories of language. They deal with the concepts pertaining to sound (including letters, words and sentences), its origin, qualities, relationship with listener and its validity as a pramana. Hence understanding a word and subsequent knowledge-from-word forms the basis of Shabdabodha. Shabda according to various texts broadly refer to meaningful "words (शब्दाः)", and their combination in the form of "sentences (वाक्यं)". While individual words have their meanings, the process through which the cognition of the sentence-meaning arises, involves processes such as yogyata (योग्यता । fitness) akanksha (आकाङ्क्षा । expectancy), aasatti (आसत्तिः । proximity) and tatparya (तात्पर्यम् । import). Alankarikas such as Vishvanatha have clearly defined a sentence as that group of words having yogyata, akanksha and aasatti. <blockquote>वाक्यं स्याद्योग्यताकाङ्क्षासत्तियुक्तः पदोच्चयः । (Sahi. Darp. 2.1)<ref>Sahitya Darpana by Vishvanatha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4 Pariccheda 2])</ref></blockquote>Bharthari says: <blockquote>अर्थप्रवृत्तितत्त्वानां शब्दा एव निबन्धनम् । तत्त्वावबोधः शब्दानां नास्ति व्याकरणादृते ।। 13 ।। (Vaky. Brah. 13)<ref>Vakyapadiyam by Bhartrhari ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83_%E0 Brahmakaanda])</ref></blockquote>It is words that form the bases of meanings, purposes, activities and truth. Knowledge of Vyakarana is the only recourse to understand the truth (तत्त्वावबोधः) embedded in the shabda.<ref name=":0" />

Here in the present article we engage in a discussion about shabdas (varnas), padas (words) and vakyas (group of words) and their role in comprehension of knowledge.

Here, in the present article, we engage in a discussion about shabdas (varnas), padas (words) and vakyas (group of words) and their role in comprehension of knowledge.

* understanding shabda (shabda vichara)

* '''ध्वनिविज्ञानम् ॥ Science of Dhvani''': It includes the understanding shabda ([[Shabda Vichara (शब्दविचारः)|shabda vichara]]), [[Origin and Propagation of Sound (शब्दोत्पत्तिः प्रसारश्च)|origin and propagation of sound]], classification of sound etc. validity and distinction of Shabda (or verbal testimony) as a pramana.

* validity and distinction of Shabda (or verbal testimony)

* '''पदविज्ञानम् ॥ Science of Padas''' : It includes nature of a padas ([[Pada Vichara (पदविचारः)|pada vichara]]), their formation from shabdas, padarthas and their kinds, import of words.

* nature of a vakya and vakyarthavichara (sentence-meaning)

* '''वाक्यविज्ञानम् ॥ Science of Vakyas''' : It includes construction of a sentence ([[Vakya Vichara (वाक्यविचारः)|vakya vichara]]), factors involved in the cognition of the vakyartha, import of sentences.

* cause of the cognition of the vakyartha

== Shabdabodha ==

== ज्ञानम् ॥ Cognition ==

Shabdabodha (Verbal comprehension) is the outcome of knowledge of the meanings in a sentence. A sentence or statement by itself is not sufficient to give us any knowledge of things; mere utterance of sentence does not suffice. Nor does perception of the words of a sentence lead to any knowledge about objects; mere hearing of sentence does not suffice. Thus we summarize the aspects involved in Shabdabodha

अर्थः (Artha) means purpose, meaning, wealth etc. Here with reference to the present context of "meaning" it is of two types - वस्तु (real) and बौद्धार्थ (imaginary). Generally, the word ज्ञानम् (Jnanam) is used to relate to the concept of Cognition whereas knowledge is represented by the word विज्ञानम् (Vijnanam).<ref name=":1" />

 

The analysis of the cognition obtained from language is known broadly as शाब्दबोध (Shabdabodha). This term is used to denote the cognition episode of the hearer, along with the theories involved in the cause and process of cognition. It includes a thorough examination of the meaning of the component items of a sentence and their relationship, and the resulting cognition as a paraphrase centred on meaning.<ref name=":2">Hurdoyal. Vedika Mati, (2017) Ph.D Thesis: ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/262166 ŚĀBDABODHA: A Critical Analysis Of Language-Understanding In Indian Philosophy].'' Chennai: University of Madras (Chapter 1)</ref>

 

A sentence or statement by itself is not sufficient to give us any knowledge of things; mere utterance of sentence does not suffice. Nor does perception of the words of a sentence lead to any knowledge about objects; mere hearing of sentence does not suffice. We may summarize the aspects involved in Shabdabodha as

# Expression : Presence of Shabda (written or spoken forms or by gestures)

# Expression : Presence of Shabda (written or spoken forms or by gestures)

# Reception : Perception of Shabda (visual or auditory sense-organs)

# Reception : Perception of Shabda (visual or auditory sense-organs)

# Instrument : Knowledge of constituent words/padas (Padajnana)

# Instrument : Knowledge of constituent words/padas (Padajnana)

# Validation : Validity of Shabda (based on trustworthiness of the person giving the statement)

# Validation : Validity of Shabda (based on trustworthiness of the person giving the statement)

# Recognition : Understanding the meaning of statement (it is a conditional factor)

# Cognition: Understanding the meaning of sentence (it is a conditional factor)

=== शब्दप्रमाणम् ॥ Shabda Pramana ===

== वाक्यार्थज्ञानम् ॥ Vakyarthajnana ==

[[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]] are the very foundation of Bharatiya Darshana shastras. Shabda Pramana is one of them. According to Nyayadarshana, 'Shabda', used in the technical sense of a sentence (that can be a means of knowledge) is defined by Gautama as that which is uttered by a trustworthy person. Shabda here literally means verbal knowledge. It is the knowledge of objects derived from the words or sentences, however not all verbal knowledge is valid. Hence, Shabda as a pramana, is defined in Nyaya as valid verbal testimony. It consists in the assertion of a trustworthy person.<ref name=":72">Chatterjee. Satischandra, (1950 Second Edition) ''The Nyaya Theory of Knowledge, A Critical Study of Some Problems of Login and Metaphysics''. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. (Pages 317 - 321)</ref>

 

 

 

 

== शब्दप्रमाणम् ॥ Shabda Pramana ==

[[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]] are the very foundation of Bharatiya Darshana shastras. Shabda Pramana is one of them. According to Nyayadarshana, 'Shabda', used in the technical sense of a sentence (that can be a means of knowledge) is defined by Gautama as that which is uttered by a trustworthy person. Shabda here literally means verbal knowledge. It is the knowledge of objects derived from the words or sentences, however not all verbal knowledge is valid. Hence, Shabda as a pramana, is defined in Nyaya as valid verbal testimony. It consists in the assertion of a trustworthy person.<ref name=":72">Chatterjee. Satischandra, (1950 Second Edition) ''The Nyaya Theory of Knowledge, A Critical Study of Some Problems of Logic and Metaphysics''. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. (Pages 317 - 321)</ref>

A trustworthy person is one who has the discerning knowledge of objects to attain what is beneficial and avoid what is harmful. Such a person may be a seer, a virtuous man, a foreigner (mleccha); and the sentence uttered by them consisting of words having syntactic expectancy (yogyata), congruity (aakanksha) and proximity (sannidi or aasatti) is a valid verbal testimony or Shabda Pramana (शब्दप्रमाणम्).<ref name=":0" />

A trustworthy person is one who has the discerning knowledge of objects to attain what is beneficial and avoid what is harmful. Such a person may be a seer, a virtuous man, a foreigner (mleccha); and the sentence uttered by them consisting of words having syntactic expectancy (yogyata), congruity (aakanksha) and proximity (sannidi or aasatti) is a valid verbal testimony or Shabda Pramana (शब्दप्रमाणम्).<ref name=":0" />

All [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|pramanas in astika darshanas]] discuss about shabda pramana in one form or other and primarily differ in this point from the nastika darshanas. The nastika darshanas such as Charvakas do not admit the validity of Shabda Pramana itself, some like Buddhist schools admit it as Anumana Pramana. Naiyyayikas considered it as a distinct independent pramana and Vaiseshikas do not admit Shabda as an independent pramana, they classify it under Anumana pramana (inference).

All [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|pramanas in astika darshanas]] discuss about shabda pramana in one form or other and primarily differ in this point from the nastika darshanas. The nastika darshanas such as Charvakas do not admit the validity of Shabda Pramana itself, some like Buddhist schools admit it as Anumana Pramana. Naiyyayikas considered it as a distinct independent pramana and Vaiseshikas do not admit Shabda as an independent pramana, they classify it under Anumana pramana (inference).

Summarizing the above points, the constituents of Shabdapramana are as follows<ref name=":72" />  

Summarizing the above points, the constituents of Shabdapramana or steps through which jnana of a particular object is apprehended include <ref name=":72" />  

# the word or utterances (articulate letter sounds) having a meaning or signifying power (shakti)

# the word or utterances (articulate letter sounds) having a meaning or signifying power (shakti)

# the sentences (articulated word sounds) having syntactic expectancy (yogyata), congruity (akanksha) and proximity (sannidhi)

# the sentences (articulated words) having syntactic expectancy (yogyata), congruity (akanksha) and proximity (sannidhi)

# these words are uttered by a trustworthy person (Mantradrashtas or seers)

# these words are uttered by a trustworthy person (Mantradrashtas or seers)

# are heard by the sense of hearing or perceived through gestures (as discussed in Nrsimhaprakasika commentary given on Tarkasangrahadipika the verbal cognition arises even in absence of a sentence from the gestures shown by one who observes the vow of silence).  

# they are heard by the sense of hearing or perceived through gestures (as discussed in Nrsimhaprakasika commentary given on Tarkasangrahadipika the verbal cognition arises even in absence of a sentence from the gestures shown by one who observes the vow of silence).  

# comprehended through understanding the relation among the meanings of words or sentence-meaning

# they are comprehended through understanding the relation among the meanings of words or sentence-meaning

# gives rise to the knowledge (purport) of objects about which the words are uttered.

# this meaning gives rise to the knowledge (purport) of objects about which the words are uttered.

==== Difference between Shabda and Anumana Pramana ====

=== Summary of Darsanika Views About a Sentence ===

Various schools of thought have evolved their explanations about what constitutes a sentence according to their siddhantas. Summarizing a few aspects below<ref name=":0" />

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

!

!School of thought

!Anumana

!Vakya Lakshana

!Shabda

!Siddhantas Accepted or Rejected

|-

|-

|Function

|Yoga

|

|

|-

|-

|Instrument

|Nyaya

|Knowledge of vyapti or universal relation

|Sentence consists of several units in the form of two or more words (Vatsyayana bhashya on Nyayasutra 2.1.54)

|Occurs due to the knowledge of words or sentences<ref name=":72" />

|Varnas are the ultimate constituents of a sentence

|Sentence is a group of words (Udayana in Nyayakusumanjali 5.6)

|-

|-

|Relationship

|Mimamsa

|

|Words which serve a unitary purpose constitute a sentence (Sabara bhashya on Mimasa Sutra 2.2.26)

|In order for Shabda to convey its meaning a relation other than contact (samyoga) is essential

 

|Letters or words in a specific order constitute a sentence (Sankara bhashya on Vedanta Sutra 1.3.28)

|Words manifested in a single cognition constitute a sentence (Vedantadesika in Tattvamuktakalapa)

|Sentence is made up of words having yogyata, akanksha and aasatti (Jayatirtha in Pramanapaddhati)

|-

|-

|

|Vyakarana

|

|Sentence has the nature of sphota; it is an utterable linguistic unit which is indivisible.

|

|Proponents of Sphota

|}

|}

In discussion about the connection between the word and the object signified by it, just as in inference there is a certain connection between the mark (smoke) and the thing signified by it (fire) the purvapaksha lays down that shabdapramana and Anumana pramana are not any different. However, the uttarapaksha clarifies the differences therein. <blockquote>आप्तोपदेशसामर्थ्यात्शब्दातर्थसम्प्रत्ययः ।। ५३ ।। {सिद्धान्तसूत्र}</blockquote><blockquote>पूरणप्रदाहपाटनानुपलब्धेः च सम्बन्धाभावः ।। ५४ ।। {सिद्धान्तसूत्र} (Nyay. Sutr. 2.1.53-54)<ref>Gautama's Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A Adhyaya 2 Prathamabhaga])</ref></blockquote>Summary : The connection between the word and object signified by it is not a natural one. While acknowledging that a word indicates a certain object, the object is not necessarily or naturally connected with the word. Hearing, for instance, the, word "cow," we think of the animal signified by it, nevertheless the word and the animal are not connected with each other by nature or necessity. However, in case of inference the sign (smoke) and the thing signified by it (eg. fire) is natural and necessary and the basis for it is obvious to perception. In the case of verbal testimony, we rely on the unseen matter such as, celestial beings, saptadvipas, apsarasas etc signified by a word, because the word has been used by a reliable person. We accept them as realities not because they are known through words but because they are spoken of by persons who are reliable. Hence it is significant to note that Anumana is not based on Aptopadesha and is based on perception whereas in Shabdapramana the special point is to decide whether the sign (word) comes from a reliable person.<ref>Mm. Satisa Chandra Vidyabhusana (1913) ''The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama (English Translation).'' Allahabad: The Panini Office. (Pages 37-39)</ref>

In discussion about the connection between the word and the object signified by it, just as in inference there is a certain connection between the mark (smoke) and the thing signified by it (fire) the purvapaksha lays down that shabdapramana and Anumana pramana are not any different. However, the uttarapaksha clarifies the differences therein. <blockquote>आप्तोपदेशसामर्थ्यात्शब्दातर्थसम्प्रत्ययः ।। ५३ ।। {सिद्धान्तसूत्र}</blockquote><blockquote>पूरणप्रदाहपाटनानुपलब्धेः च सम्बन्धाभावः ।। ५४ ।। {सिद्धान्तसूत्र} (Nyay. Sutr. 2.1.53-54)<ref>Gautama's Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A Adhyaya 2 Prathamabhaga])</ref></blockquote>Summary : The connection between the word and object signified by it is not a natural one. While acknowledging that a word indicates a certain object, the object is not necessarily or naturally connected with the word. Hearing, for instance, the, word "cow," we think of the animal signified by it, nevertheless the word and the animal are not connected with each other by nature or necessity. However, in case of inference the sign (smoke) and the thing signified by it (eg. fire) is natural and necessary and the basis for it is obvious to perception. In the case of verbal testimony, we rely on the unseen matter such as, celestial beings, saptadvipas, apsarasas etc signified by a word, because the word has been used by a reliable person. We accept them as realities not because they are known through words but because they are spoken of by persons who are reliable. Hence it is significant to note that Anumana is not based on Aptopadesha and is based on perception whereas in Shabdapramana the special point is to decide whether the sign (word) comes from a reliable person.<ref>Mm. Satisa Chandra Vidyabhusana (1913) ''The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama (English Translation).'' Allahabad: The Panini Office. (Pages 37-39)</ref>

While the Nyayasutra itself does not elaborate on the nature of Shabda , but Vātsyāyana in his commentary on the Nyāyasūtra 2.1.54 explains that a sentence consists of several units in the form of two or more words. Thus shabda or verbal testimony is that which gives rise to the valid cognition of the sentence-meaning. And it is of the nature of a sentence consisting of a group of words.   

While the Nyayasutra itself does not elaborate on the nature of Shabda, Vātsyāyana in his commentary on the Nyāyasūtra 2.1.54 explains that a sentence consists of several units in the form of two or more words. Thus shabda or verbal testimony is that which gives rise to the valid cognition of the sentence-meaning. And it is of the nature of a sentence consisting of a group of words.   

The Naiyaayikas admit that the articulate alphabetic sounds are the ultimate constituents of a sentence. There arises the auditory perception of each and every articulate alphabetic sound when it is uttered. One construes two or more sounds in the form of a word. From the cognition of the word one arrives at the cognition of its meaning. One then construes two or more words in the form of a sentence and from the cognition of it, one gets at the cognition of the relation of the word-meanings - the relation which is the sentence-meaning. The conclusive view of the Naiyaayikas is that a word is a group of articulate alphabetic sounds and a sentence is a group of words. A group or aggregate is not distinct from the units comprising it. Even when it is said that a word consists of several articulate alphabetic sounds and a sentence consists of several words, it comes to this, that articulate alphabetical sounds manifested in a single cognition constitute a sentence.  

The Naiyaayikas admit that the articulate alphabetic sounds are the ultimate constituents of a sentence. There arises the auditory perception of each and every articulate alphabetic sound when it is uttered. One construes two or more sounds in the form of a word. From the cognition of the word one arrives at the cognition of its meaning. One then construes two or more words in the form of a sentence and from the cognition of it, one gets at the cognition of the relation of the word-meanings - the relation which is the sentence-meaning. The conclusive view of the Naiyaayikas is that a word is a group of articulate alphabetic sounds and a sentence is a group of words. A group or aggregate is not distinct from the units comprising it. Even when it is said that a word consists of several articulate alphabetic sounds and a sentence consists of several words, it comes to this, that articulate alphabetical sounds manifested in a single cognition constitute a sentence.  

== बौद्धार्थः ॥ Expressing Things ==

== बौद्धार्थः ॥ Imagination ==

In निरालम्बनवाद (श्लो^० १०७-११३) of श्लोकवार्त्तिक Kumārila clearly states that अलातचक्र etc. is बौद्धार्थ –<ref name=":1">Paper Presentation by Prof. K. Subrahmanayam titled ''[https://groups.google.com/d/msg/bvparishat/xY1Y-wdPeSo/CKzUaFPABwAJ Pramāṇas in Indian Philosophy]''</ref><blockquote>स्वप्नादिप्रत्यये बाह्यं सर्वथा न हि नेष्यते ॥ १०७ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>सर्वत्रालम्बनं बाह्यं देशकालान्यथात्मकम् । जन्मन्येकत्र भिन्ने वा तथा कालान्तरेऽपि वा ॥ १०८ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>तद्देशो वान्यदेशो वा स्वप्नज्ञानस्य गोचरः । अलातचक्रेऽलातं स्याच्छीघ्रभ्रमणसंस्कृतम् ॥ १०९ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>गन्धर्वनगरेऽभ्राणि पूर्वदृष्टं गृहादि च । पूर्वानुभूततोयं च रश्मितप्तोषरं तथा ॥ ११० ॥</blockquote><blockquote>मृगतोयस्य विज्ञाने कारणत्वेन कल्प्यते । द्रव्यान्तरे विषाणं च शशस्यत्मा च कारणम् ॥ १११ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>शशशृङ्गधियो मौण्ड्यं निषेधे शिरसोऽस्य च । वस्त्वन्तरैरसंसृष्टः पदार्थः शून्यताधियः ॥ ११२ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>कारणत्वं पदार्थानामसद्वाक्यार्थकल्पने । अत्यन्ताननुभूतोऽपि बुद्ध्या योऽर्थः प्रकल्प्यते ॥ ११३ ॥</blockquote>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Slokavartika in Wikisource]

Artha (अर्थः) or Meaning is of two types - वस्तु (real) and बौद्धार्थ (imaginary). For the Vaiyakaranas, the meaning of a word is closely related to the level of understanding. Whether or not things are real, we do have concepts that form the content of a person’s cognitions derived from language. Without necessarily denying or affirming the external reality of objects in the world, grammarians claimed that the meaning of a word is only a projection of intellect (bauddhārtha, buddhipratibhāṣa).<ref name=":2" />

 

Patanjali in पस्पशाह्निकम्, explains the meaning of शब्दशब्द as -<blockquote>येनोच्चारितेन सास्नालाङ्गूलककुदखुरविषाणिनां संप्रत्ययो भवति स शब्दः ।</blockquote>So संप्रत्ययः (ज्ञानम्) of an अर्थ is to be attained through Shabda (शब्दः)।

Patañjali says सतो बुद्धिविषयान् प्रकाशयन्ति (they express things that are there in the mind) which clearly supports ‘बौद्धार्थ’. ‘बुद्धौ कृत्वा सर्वाश्चेष्टाः कर्ता धीरस्तन्वन्नीतिः’ (the scholar, who has got an intellect that spreads, would imagine all the process, i.e. related to prior and latter, the relation etc. in the intellect) etc. is the statement of Patañjali which also establishes the सिद्धान्त of बौद्धार्थ. Words like शशशृङ्गम्, गगनकुसुमम् etc. express things that are बौद्ध (imaginary) rather than real.

By बौद्धार्थः words such as शशशृङ्गम् and वन्ध्यापुत्रः are also Shabdas and they are understood although there they mean a thing that is not tangible such words can be taken as a प्रातिपदिकम् (stem)।

Patañjali advocates a third category, i.e., other than प्रमा and भ्रम, called विकल्प. प्रमा is यथार्थज्ञान (authoritative cognition) achieved through ''Pramāṇas'' whereas भ्रम or विपर्यय is the usage (and the connected cognition) that is borne from the usage and the cognition that follows but without the existence of the thing in question – शब्दज्ञानानुपाती वस्तुशून्यो विकल्पः (यौ^० सू^० १-९) is the ''sūtra'' of Patañjali. शशशृङ्गम् etc. are examples. Such a cognition is possible when there is बौद्धार्थ. There is no बाह्यार्थ (outside / real thing) but due to the capacity of ''Śabda'' the cognition is generated. The same is expressed by Kumārila in श्लोकवार्त्तिकम् (चोदनासूत्रम् – ६)

Patañjali says सतो बुद्धिविषयान् प्रकाशयन्ति (they express things that are there in the mind) which clearly supports ‘बौद्धार्थ’। बुद्धौ कृत्वा सर्वाश्चेष्टाः कर्ता धीरस्तन्वन्नीतिः’ (the scholar, who has got an intellect that spreads, would imagine all the process, i.e. related to prior and latter, the relationship within the intellect) is the statement of Patañjali which also establishes the बौद्धार्थ. Words like शशशृङ्गम् (a hare's horn), गगनकुसुमम् (a flower in the sky) express things that are बौद्ध (imaginary) rather than real. For such words no बाह्यार्थ (outside / real thing) exists but due to the capacity of ''Śabda'' the cognition is generated.<ref name=":1" />

अत्यन्तासत्यपि ज्ञानमर्थे शब्दः करोति हि। (even if the real thing is absolutely absent ''Śabda'' generates the cognition). Hence अत्यन्तासत् means अत्यन्ताभाव।

In निरालम्बनवाद (श्लो^० १०७-११३) of श्लोकवार्त्तिक Kumārila clearly states that अलातचक्र  ''alātacakra'' (the illusory wheel we get while rotating a firebrand at high speeds) and others such as शशशृङ्गम् is बौद्धार्थ।<ref name=":1">Paper Presentation by Prof. K. Subrahmanayam titled ''[https://groups.google.com/d/msg/bvparishat/xY1Y-wdPeSo/CKzUaFPABwAJ Pramāṇas in Indian Philosophy]''</ref><blockquote>स्वप्नादिप्रत्यये बाह्यं सर्वथा न हि नेष्यते ॥ १०७ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>सर्वत्रालम्बनं बाह्यं देशकालान्यथात्मकम् । जन्मन्येकत्र भिन्ने वा तथा कालान्तरेऽपि वा ॥ १०८ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>तद्देशो वान्यदेशो वा स्वप्नज्ञानस्य गोचरः । अलातचक्रेऽलातं स्याच्छीघ्रभ्रमणसंस्कृतम् ॥ १०९ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>गन्धर्वनगरेऽभ्राणि पूर्वदृष्टं गृहादि च । पूर्वानुभूततोयं च रश्मितप्तोषरं तथा ॥ ११० ॥</blockquote><blockquote>मृगतोयस्य विज्ञाने कारणत्वेन कल्प्यते । द्रव्यान्तरे विषाणं च शशस्यत्मा च कारणम् ॥ १११ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>शशशृङ्गधियो मौण्ड्यं निषेधे शिरसोऽस्य च । वस्त्वन्तरैरसंसृष्टः पदार्थः शून्यताधियः ॥ ११२ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>कारणत्वं पदार्थानामसद्वाक्यार्थकल्पने । अत्यन्ताननुभूतोऽपि बुद्ध्या योऽर्थः प्रकल्प्यते ॥ ११३ ॥ (Sloka. Vart. 107-113)<ref>Slokavartika of Kumarilabhatta ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Patañjali advocates a third category, i.e., other than Prama (प्रमा) and Bhrama (भ्रम) called Vikalpa (विकल्प). प्रमा is यथार्थज्ञान (authoritative cognition) achieved through ''Pramāṇas.'' Bhrama ''(''भ्रम) or विपर्यय is the usage (and the connected cognition) that  follows but without the existence of the thing in question – शब्दज्ञानानुपाती वस्तुशून्यो विकल्पः (यौ^० सू^० १-९) is the ''sūtra'' of Patañjali. शशशृङ्गम् etc. are examples. Such a cognition is possible when there is बौद्धार्थ. There is no बाह्यार्थ (outside / real thing) but due to the capacity of Śabda the cognition is generated. The same is expressed by Kumārila in Slokavartikam (श्लोकवार्त्तिकम्) (चोदनासूत्रम् – ६)<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>अत्यन्तासत्यपि ज्ञानमर्थे शब्दः करोति हि। </blockquote>It means that even if the real thing is absolutely absent ''Śabda'' generates the cognition.  

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