Plant Taxonomy

Plant taxonomy – Ancient & Modern

Though a single work devoted to botany is unknown, the knowledge of botany among Indians is well known from Vedas, works on Ayurveda, Krishishastra, Arthashastra and lexicons. Terms like Vrkshayurveda and Vanaspatividya tell us that knowledge of botany flourished in the past.  There are few legends which indicate that ancient Indians had several beliefs associated with trees. For instance, Gobhilagrihyasutra mentions that  Asvatta brings danger of fire to one’s residence and that Udumbara leads to a series of optical diseases. Also, Brihatsamhita  speaks of trees like the Asoka and Punnaga which are beneficial to warfare.

1.     LITERATURE REVIEW

a.      Nomenclature

The branch of taxonomy includes nomenclaure and suitable grouping of the plants.In general, plants were named with a scientific approach. A look at the etymology of the synonymns of trees tells us that naming was backed by reason.

v&]  v&ZCyte iD*te  - that which is cut

mhIéh – that which grows on Earth

zaoI - that which has branches

padp – that which drinks sap with roots

té - triNt Anen Aatpm! !– that by which people overcome heat

Anaekh - Ans> zkqSyak< git< hiNt– that which obstructs pace of cart

plazI  – that which has leaves

Agm n gCDtIit– that which doesn’t move

Similar scientific basis was adopted in naming the different varieties of plants based on various factors as provided in the following table.

Table 1: Nomenclature of plants

Sl.No.	Parameter	Plant – Name	Reason for the Name
1	Special features	·         Ny¢aexm!   ·         àsri[ ·         v&]aéh	Banyan tree is huge and blocks the road spreads on the ground- Ipomea tridentala Vandaka grows on trees -  Vanda roxburghi
2	Morphological characters	·         v³pu:p ·         b÷padm! ·         vLkÔ‚m ·         icÇbIj / gNxvRhSt / pÂa¼‚l ·          Sv[R]Iir	Has curved flowers - Sesbania grandiflora Has several roots - Banyan tree The bark has medicinal value and it is corky, paper-like! - Betula utilis Has seeds with various marks and has palmate leaves(five-fingered!) - Castor oil plant (Ricinis  communis) Latex of roots of Kashmiri Hirtiz  is    golden yellow in colour - Euphoria thomsoniana
3	Comparison with familiar objects	·         Aaouki[R ·         hilin ·         zŒpui:p	The leaves resemble ears of rat Rhizomes resemble pestle Flowers of Apraijta resemble conch
4	Place or origin, habit, flowering season	·         Ôivif ·         yvn   ·         jlj /p»ja ·         sda)l	Is a South Indian crop - Cardamon Seeds grow in - Hyoscyamus Grows in water - Lotus Bears fruits in all seasons – Beal
5	Innate Properties	·         AjgNx  ·         AñgNx ·         %î  ·         sIt ·         puÇda	Has smell like odour of goat - Gynandropis gynandra Has smeel like odour of horse - Winter cherry Is hot in potency - Black pepper Is cool in potency - White sandalwood Cures sterility and bestows one with son - Ipomea sepiaria
6	Pharmacological actions	·         k«im¹ ·         pa;anÉed ·          kzmdR	It is a good anti-helmenthic It dissolves kidney-stones Relieves cough – Cassia occidentalis
7	Utility	·         SyNdn ·          xnuÔ‚Rm ·         Ai¶mNw ·         ì[air	The wood is used to make chariots - Lagerstroemia parviflora It is used for making bows - Bamboo Wood of is used for kindling sacrificial fire  - Premna integrifolia cures boils (enemy of boils)
8	Mythology	·         baeixÔ‚m ·         #NÔv&] / surdaé / devdaé  ·         k«:[tulis / surs	Buddha attained enlightenment under the peepul tree The sacred fig (Peepal) Pinus deodara is Indra’s tree It is used in the worship of Lord Krishna

b.     Classification - plants were categorised based on the criteria of  botanical terms, properties and food value.

1.      Botanical terms :

Ø  §Gved  (X.97.3,15)

A;xI> àitmaedXv< pu:pvtI> àsUvrI>,Aña #v sijvrIvIRéx> pariy:[v>.

ya> )ilnIyaR A)la Apu:pa yaí pui:p[I>,b&hSpitàsUtaSta na muÂNTv<hs>.

divides plants as –)ilnI ,A)la ,Apu:p and pui:pnI

divides trees (Aae;ix is a vedic term for a class of trees) as- guLm , Ée;j and lta

Ø  AwvRved (VIII.7.4,1,12)

àSt&[tI StiMbnIrekzu¼a> àtNvtIrae;xIra vdaim, A<zumtI> kai{fnIyaR ivzaoa þyaim te vIédae vEñdevIé¢a> puê;jIvnI.

ya bævae yaí zu³a raeih[Iét p&îy>,

Ais²I> k«:[a Aae;xI> svaR ACDavdamis.

mxumNmUl< mxumd¢masa< mxumNmXy< vIéxa< bÉUv,

mxumt! p[¡ mxumt! mxae> s<É´a Am&tSy É]ae "&tmÚ< Êÿta< gaepu<raegvm!.

divides plants as àSt&[it , StiMbin> , @ks&¼ae> , tnuvit>, A<zumit>, ki{fin> and ivzaoa>

divides plants on the basis of colour as - zu³a ,  raeih[Iét , p&îy> , Ais²I> and k«:[a

divides plants based on sweetness as - mxumNmUl< , mxumd¢m!  , mxumNmXy< , mxumt! p[¡ and mxumt! pu:pm!

Ø  pai[in (VIII.4.6 , IV.3.133.VIII.4.4 , VIII.4.5)

vÉa;aE;ixvnSpit_y> , Avyve c àa{yaE;ixv&]e_y> ,

vn< purgaimïkaisºkasairkakaeqra¢e_y> , àinrNt>zre]uPl]aèka:yRoidrpIyU]a_yae=s<}ayamip,

groups as- Aae;ix vn (producing herbs) and vnSpit vn producing timber)  

Ø  mnu (I.46-48)

Aae;ix , vnSpit , v&] ,guLm ,t&[, àtan and v‘I

%iѾa> Swavra> sveR bIjka{fàraeih[>,Aae;Xy> )lpakaNta b÷pu:Ppklaepga>.

Apu:pa> )lvNtae ye te vnSpty> Sm&ta>,pui:p[> )ilníEv v&]aStUÉyt> Sm&ta>.

guCDguLm< tu ivivx< twEv t&[jaty>,bIjka{fêha{yev àtana v‘y @v c.

Ø  suïut (sutrasthana .1.29) & crk (sutrasthana .1.71,72)

tasa< SwavraítuivRxa> - vnSptyae , v&]a , vIéx , Aae;xy #it, tasu Apu:pa> )lvNtae, vnSpty> pu:p)lvNtae v&]a> , àtanvTy> StiMbNyí vIéx> , )lpakinóa Aae;xy #it.

vnSpStwa vIéÖanSpTyStwaE;ix>. )lE> vnSpit> pu:pE> vanSpTy> )lErip, Aae;Xy> )lpakaNta> àtavE> vIéx> Sm&ta>.

vnSpit ,vanSpTy (trees bearing flowers followed by fruits) ,Aae;ix , vIéx! (same as  gulma & lata )

Ø  Éagvt pura[(III.10.19)

vnpTyae;ixltaTvKsara vIéxae Ô‚ma>, %TöaetsStm> àaya ANt> SpzaR ivzei;[>.

groups plants as- vnSpit , Ô‚m , Aae;ix , lta (is the same as   valli of manu) , TvKsar and

vIéx! (shrubs that are like clumps)

Ø  mTSypura[ (8.2,3 ; 153.304)

ydaiÉi;´> sklaixraJye p&wuxRirÈyamixpae bÉUv,tdaE;xInamixp< ckar y|ìtana< tpsa cNÔm!.

n]ÇtariÖjv&]guLmltaivtanSy c éKmgÉR>,ApamxIz< vé[< xnana< ra}a< àÉu< vEïv[ tÖt!.

jljSwljE> pu:pE> àaeT)…L‘E> %pxaeiÉtm!,icÇkNdrs<Swan< guhag&hmnaehrm!.

classifies plants as: v&] , guLm , lta , vIéx , v‘I

divides Aae;ix (trees) as: k«ò and SvyMjat

divides flowers as: jlj and Swlj

Ø  %pvnivnaed (verse 43)

vnSpitÔ‚mltaguLma> pdjaty>, bIjaTka{faÄwa kNdaľNm iÇivx< ivÊ>.

groups plants as- vnSpit , Ô‚m , lta and  guLm

2.      Properties

Caraka in his Sutrasthana classifies plants as Purgatives and Astringents.The former has about 600 species whereas the latter has about 500 species. Sushruta classifies plants into 37 gana-s on similar basis.

3.     Food value:

Caraka classifies plants into 6 varieties as (Sutrasthana, IV):

ü  xaNyvgR Graminaceae (corns with husk)divided into 11 varieties like zail, ìIih  yv &  gaexUm

ü  zamIxaNyvgR Leguminosae (12 types of corns) Eg. muÌ ma;a

ü  zaoavgR  (18 types of vegetables)

ü  )lvgR

ü  hirÖgR (includes Zingiber officinale, Raphanus saticus,Allium cepa & Allium

sativum )

ü  AaharyaigvgR oils of sesamum and mustard

Susruta classified plants into 15 types based on food-value as (Sutrasthana, XXVIII):

zailxaNy, ;iòk, ìIihxaNy, k…xaNyvgR , vEdl , tl,yv ,izMb, )lvgR ,zakavgR

pu:pvgR ,%iÑÖgR , ka{fvgR , tElvgR , #]uvgR

Science of the modern times defines Taxonomy as the branch of science that deals with the description, naming and classification of organisms. The term is derived from the ancient Greek words taxis  (arrangement) and nomia (method). Taxonomist aims to group together living forms which have common associates. This science is hierarchical. à various Divisions à Classes à Orders à Families à Genera àSpecies.Thus, species is the basic unit of classification. There were various systems of classifications proposed by the westerners based on :

1.      Habits

2.      Artificial Systems based on numerical classifications

3.      Systems based on form relationships

4.      Systems based on Phylogeny

The first system of classification which is based on habits was put forth by the Greeks and was in vogue for about 10 centuries. The prominent contributors in this field are:

Table 2: Habits

Sl. No.	Scientist	Distinguishing Characters	Types	Feature
1	Theophrastus (Father of botany) (370-285 B.C) - Greek	Form or Texture	Trees, Shrubs, Undershrubs & Herbs	Distinguished between centripetal & centrifugal inflorescences, recognised differences in ovary position, and in polypetalous and gamopetalous corollas
2	Andrea Cesalpino (1519-1631) - Italian	·         ovary position; Number of locules in ovary bulbs; ·         nature of sap;	Herbs & Trees	Influenced later botanists like Linnaeus
3	John Ray (1628-1705) - English	Form & gross morphology	Woody & herbaceous plants	Accounted for nearly 18000 species; recognised monocots & dicots; classes based on fruit-type (cone-bearing, nut-bearing. etc.,); superior to even Linnaean system

Table 3: Artificial Systems based on numerical classifications

Sl. No.	Scientist	Characters	Types	Feature
1	Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) Father of taxonomic Botany & Zoology	Artificial System – length, union & number of stamens	Plants were put into 24 classes; sub-divided into orders based on number of styles in each flower	Identification& naming of unknown plants was possible – a path breaking feature!

Table 4: Systems based on form relationships

Sl. No.	Scientist	Characters	Types	Feature
1	De Jussieu (17th cen. AD)	Monocot vs. Dicots Ovary position ; nature of petals ; distinctness of petals	Flowering plants were put into 15 classes ; 100 orders	Natural system; each plant cleary differentialed , named, described
2	De Candolle (18th cen AD)	Nature of corolla, gamopetalous vs. Polypetalous corollas; ovary positions	Put plants into 161 families
3	Bentham & Hooker(1800-1884)- English	Nature of corolla &  seeds, ovary position	Classifies plants into 200 orders , 7569 orders	Describes taxa of all levels

Table 5: Systems based on Phylogeny

Sl. No.	Scientist	Characters	Types	Feature
1	Eichler(1839-1887)	Seeds	Cryptogamae – ferns, bryophytes, hepatics, fungi and algae& Phanerogamae- seed plants (thallophytes, bryophytes & pteridophytes)	Seed-plants were for the first time put into two major taxa – angiospermae & gynnospermae
2	Adolph Engler (1844-1930)	Monocots, dicots	Angiospermae and gymnospermae ; the angiospermae were divided into monocots and dicots ; and dicots further sub-divided	Provides means of identification of all of the known genera of plants from algae to advanced seed plants

ANALYSIS & SYNTHESIS

The Indian system of classification adopted right from the vedic times to the times of the puranas and other lexicons provide classification based on habits, dietetic value and also on botanical terms. In the modern science systems, the classification is based on habits, natural and artificial methods. The hierarchial system of classification adopted by the modern scientists and the binomial nomenclature adopted by the westerners is absent in our traditional Indian system. The divisions of plants based on properties and food-value tell us that the focus of the Indians had been mainly on finding the usefulness of  each & every plant and putting them under a broad category. In addition to that, since the naming of plants was done by notable morphological features, it appealed  even to the common-man.

2.      CONCLUSION

The paper is an attempt  in presenting a relative picture of the traditional and modern systems of plant-classification.  Based on the findings, it is concluded that in both Indian and Modern systems, there is lot of science involved when it comes to identifying or naming plants. The plants were classed  depending on the knowledge existing at that time about the variety or nature of plants. The Indians had minor variations with respect to definitions of few classes of plant-varieties.The Westerners were fairly uniform on the definitions of various botanical terminologies.

3.      SCOPE OF FUTURE RESEARCH

There is ample scope in taking this forward by exclusively basing the comparison on one extensive and comprehensive system of the modern scientists with that of a smiliar ancient system. Moreover, the scope extends in the area of comparing commonly available and useful plants’ nomenclature in both the systems.This would throw light on areas of overlapping between the two different systems.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1.      Caraka Samhita, ed. with Eng tr. by Ram Karan Sharma and Vaidya Bhagwan Das, The Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Vol. XCIV, 1976.

2.     Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana, C.L.Goswami, Gita press, , 1971.

3.     Matsya Puranam, Gurumandal series no. XIII, , 1954.

4.     Susruta Samhita, ed. & Tr. by Priya Vrat Sharma, Chawkhambha Visvabharati Oriental Publishers & Distributors, 1999.

5.     Vrkshayurveda – An Introduction to Indian Plant Science, K.Vijayalakshmi and K.M.Shyam Sundar, 1993

6.     Flora and Fauna in Sanskrit Literature, Dr. S. C. Banerji, Naya prakash, , 1980.

7.     Horticulture in Ancient , R.N.Sampath, Rashtriya Samskrita Sansthan, , 1998.

8.     Modern Textbook of Botany, Y.D.Tiagi, Universal Publications, ,1983.