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== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
 
== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
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Philosophy is the search for an experience of Reality. The subject-matter of Indian philosophy, however, is not the entire Reality. It is more about the true nature of the Self. One of the postulates of Indian philosophy is that the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], loosely translated as soul in abrahmic texts, is the core of Self and its intrinsic nature full of [[Sukha and Ananda (सुखानन्दश्च)|Ananda]]. The realization of the true and native nature of the Self is another name for [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]]. Vedanta adopted ideas from other Darshanas such as Yoga and Nyaya, and, over time, became the most prominent of the Astika Darshanas, influencing the sampradayas or diverse traditions within it. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta, of which Advaita Vedanta, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita and Bhedabheda are the best known.  
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Philosophy is the search for an experience of Reality. The subject-matter of Indian philosophy, however, is not the entire Reality. It is more about the true nature of the Self. One of the postulates of Indian philosophy is that the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], loosely translated as soul in abrahmic texts, is the core of Self and its intrinsic nature full of [[Sukha and Ananda (सुखानन्दश्च)|Ananda]]. The realization of the true and native nature of the Self is another name for [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]]. Vedanta adopted ideas from other Darshanas such as [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga]] and [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]], and, over time, became the most prominent of the Astika Darshanas, influencing the sampradayas or diverse traditions within it. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta, of which Advaita Vedanta, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita and Bhedabheda are the best known.  
    
The Self to be realized is usually confused with the Ahamkara or the individual ego that we are aware of. We mistake the ego for the true Self and that is the cause of our suffering. The ignorance of the true nature of the Self, which is free from all impurities, sorrows, etc., is the cause of bondage. This ignorance is called by different names. Nyaya calls it mithya jnana (illusory knowledge). [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] calls it lack of discernment between [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]] and [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakrti]]. Advaita calls it [[Maya (माया)|Maya]] (illusion). Self-realization is achieved either through self-culture, or as in some forms of Vedanta, through divine grace.<ref name=":2">Nagaraja Rao, P. (1958) ''Introduction to Vedanta.'' Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</ref>
 
The Self to be realized is usually confused with the Ahamkara or the individual ego that we are aware of. We mistake the ego for the true Self and that is the cause of our suffering. The ignorance of the true nature of the Self, which is free from all impurities, sorrows, etc., is the cause of bondage. This ignorance is called by different names. Nyaya calls it mithya jnana (illusory knowledge). [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] calls it lack of discernment between [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]] and [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakrti]]. Advaita calls it [[Maya (माया)|Maya]] (illusion). Self-realization is achieved either through self-culture, or as in some forms of Vedanta, through divine grace.<ref name=":2">Nagaraja Rao, P. (1958) ''Introduction to Vedanta.'' Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</ref>
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# What would “global justice” look like?
 
# What would “global justice” look like?
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The essential point in the above first four questions is that these questions are directly connected with consciousness. Philosophy whether Eastern  Advaita Vedanta or Modern Western Philosophy all of them are vitally connected with consciousness.
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The essential point in the above first four questions is that these questions are directly connected with consciousness.  
    
==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==
 
==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==
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The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and  ‘''Anta’'' meaning वेदानाम्  अन्तः।  or ''<nowiki/>'end of Vedas''' and indeed, many of these texts are found at the end of each of [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]]. In Shabdakalpadhruma<ref>See word [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80 Vedanta on Page 4/501]</ref>, Hemachandra mentions Vedanta to be Upanishads.  
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The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and  ‘''Anta’'' meaning वेदानाम्  अन्तः।  or ''<nowiki/>'end of Vedas''' and indeed, many of these texts are found at the end of each of [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]]. In Shabdakalpadhruma<ref name=":1">See word [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80 Vedanta on Page 4/501]</ref>, Hemachandra mentions Vedanta to be Upanishads.  
    
: वेदान्तो नाम उपनिषत्-प्रमाणं तदुपकारीणि शारीरकसूत्रादीनि च । इति परमहंसपरिव्राजकाचार्य्य श्रीसदानन्द-योगीन्द्रविरचितवेदान्तसारः ॥
 
: वेदान्तो नाम उपनिषत्-प्रमाणं तदुपकारीणि शारीरकसूत्रादीनि च । इति परमहंसपरिव्राजकाचार्य्य श्रीसदानन्द-योगीन्द्रविरचितवेदान्तसारः ॥
 
: Vedanta signifies the Upanishads, the means of right knowledge (with respect to Self) and the Sharirika sutras and other (works) helpful in understanding them, as per Vedantasara (text) composed by Sadananda Yogindra Acharya.
 
: Vedanta signifies the Upanishads, the means of right knowledge (with respect to Self) and the Sharirika sutras and other (works) helpful in understanding them, as per Vedantasara (text) composed by Sadananda Yogindra Acharya.
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At the end or culmination of the Vedas, in the sense that they embody the highest philosophical knowledge of the Vedas, Upanishads, are also called Uttara Mimamsa. Vedanta is also called '''Uttara Mimamsa''', or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mimamsa which deals with the previous part of the Vedas, namely the [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]]. Thus, both Purva and Uttara Mimamsa It also refers to the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry' in the Brahmana granthas. Purva Mimamsa, is called Karma Mimamsa, or is simply called as Mimamsa, deals with explanations of the ''Karma-kanda'' or rituals part of the Vedic mantras in Samhita and Brahmanas, while Uttara Mimamsa or usually called as Vedanta or Jnana Mimamsa as it deals with the philosophical knowledge of [[Upanishads]] or the ''Jnana-kanda'' of the Vedas.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962) ''The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey.'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>
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At the end or culmination of the Vedas, in the sense that they embody the highest philosophical knowledge of the Vedas, Upanishads, are also called Uttara Mimamsa. Vedanta is also called '''Uttara Mimamsa''', or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mimamsa which deals with the previous part of the Vedas, namely the [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]]. Thus, both Purva and Uttara Mimamsa are directly based on the Vedas. Purva Mimasa refers to the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry' in the Brahmana granthas, is also called Karma Mimamsa, or is simply called as Mimamsa. It deals with explanations of the ''Karma-kanda'' or rituals part of the Vedic mantras in Samhita and Brahmanas, while Uttara Mimamsa, also called as Vedanta or Jnana Mimamsa, deals with the philosophical knowledge of [[Upanishads]] or the ''Jnana-kanda'' of the Vedas.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962) ''The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey.'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>
    
== Aims and Characteristics of Vedanta ==
 
== Aims and Characteristics of Vedanta ==
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The philosophy of Vedanta, like all other systems of thought, is an attempt to clearly understand and offer an explanation of the world as it appears to us in our knowledge. It is an attempt to determine the nature of the Ultimate Reality and to understand how it presents before us a world of manifoldness, in order to make out clearly the place and destiny of man in the world system. Vedanta philosophy considers two very important questions: the theoretical determination of the nature of substance or reality underlying experience and of the origin of knowledge, and the ethical problem of duty and the ultimate ideal of human life. Both these questions are thoroughly discussed and solutions are offered in the system.
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The philosophy of Vedanta, like all other systems of thought, is an attempt to clearly understand and offer an explanation of all things (vastu vichara) in the world as it appears to us in our knowledge.  
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: सर्व्वस्यापि वस्तुविचारोद्देशपूर्व्वकत्वात् प्रतिज्ञातं वेदान्तं नामतो निर्दिशति वेदान्त इति ।<ref name=":1" />
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It is an attempt to determine the nature of the Ultimate Reality and to understand how it presents before us a world of manifoldness, in order to clearly understand the place and destiny of man in the world system. Vedanta philosophy considers two very important questions: the theoretical determination of the nature of substance or reality underlying experience and of the origin of knowledge, and the ethical problem of duty and the ultimate ideal of human life. Both these questions are thoroughly discussed and solutions are offered in the system.
    
=== Nature of Texts ===
 
=== Nature of Texts ===
 
The ''Vedanta'' includes the class of literature under the heading [[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthana Trayi]], namely the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]], [[Brahmasutra (ब्रह्मसूत्र)|Brahmasutras]] or Sharirakasutras and [[Bhagavad Gita (भगवद्गीता)|Bhagavadgita]]. It essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas summarized in the Brahmasutras of Badarayana. All the diverse schools of Vedanta claim to propound the [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] teaching. The [[Upanishads]] may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses:
 
The ''Vedanta'' includes the class of literature under the heading [[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthana Trayi]], namely the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]], [[Brahmasutra (ब्रह्मसूत्र)|Brahmasutras]] or Sharirakasutras and [[Bhagavad Gita (भगवद्गीता)|Bhagavadgita]]. It essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas summarized in the Brahmasutras of Badarayana. All the diverse schools of Vedanta claim to propound the [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] teaching. The [[Upanishads]] may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses:
 
# The ''[[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhita]],'' ''[[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmana]]'' and the ''[[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]'' collectively form the [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]]. The ''[[Upanishads]]'' discuss the philosophical aspects of the ''[[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]]'' and with respect to their being at end of the Brahmana and Aranyaka texts they are termed Vedanta.
 
# The ''[[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhita]],'' ''[[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmana]]'' and the ''[[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]'' collectively form the [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]]. The ''[[Upanishads]]'' discuss the philosophical aspects of the ''[[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]]'' and with respect to their being at end of the Brahmana and Aranyaka texts they are termed Vedanta.
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# In respect to the their time of study, the ''[[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]'' were studied the last, during the last two ashramas in a man's life namely the Vanaprastha and Sannyasa.
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# In respect to the their time of study, the ''[[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]'' were studied the last, during the last two ashramas in a man's life namely the [[Vanaprasthashrama (वानप्रस्थाश्रमः)|Vanaprastha]] and [[Sannyasashrama (सन्न्यासाश्रमः)|Sannyasa]].
 
# The ''[[Upanishads]]'' mark the culmination of Vedic thought.<ref name=":0" />
 
# The ''[[Upanishads]]'' mark the culmination of Vedic thought.<ref name=":0" />
    
=== Style of Composition of Vedanta Texts ===
 
=== Style of Composition of Vedanta Texts ===
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A major portion of the Vedanta literature is composed in ‘Sutra’ format, or aphorisms, example - अथातो ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा A ‘[[Sutras (सूत्राणि)|Sutra]]’ is a short statement/phrase/rule/letters which is capable of being remembered, in the oral tradition. The brevity of the Sutra, while making it easy to remember, provides the commentator opportunity to comment on that and draw his own interpretation. The Sutras of Purva Mimamsa have been composed by Jaimini, and have been commented upon by various commentators like Shabara, Kumarila Bhatta, and Prabhakara. The commentaries are called as “[[Bhashya (भाष्यम्)|Bhashya]]”, and commentators ‘Bhashyakara’. Many a time, the commentator composed his own shlokas, for easy memorisation, and provided his own commentary on what he has composed.
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A major portion of the Vedanta literature is composed in ‘Sutra’ format, or aphorisms, for example - अथातो ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा। A ‘[[Sutras (सूत्राणि)|Sutra]]’ is a short statement/phrase/rule/letters which is capable of being remembered, in the oral tradition. The brevity of the Sutra, while making it easy to remember, provides the commentator opportunity to comment on that and draw his own interpretation. The commentaries are called as “[[Bhashya (भाष्यम्)|Bhashya]]”, and the commentators ‘Bhashyakara’. Many a time, the commentator composed his own shlokas, for easy memorization, and provided his own commentary on what he has composed.
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== Subject matter of Vedanta ==
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=== Goal of Life ===
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The chief subject matter of Vedanta involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning about revealing Brahman.
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All activity in the universe, of man and of every other living being, if analyzed, will be found to have for its object one of these three:- ''to be (to exist), to know, and to be happy''. The goal of all thinking beings is 
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Vedanta holds that Pure Consciousness has three forms
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# to exist ''always'' and ''everywhere'' 
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# to know ''always'' and ''all things'' 
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# to be happy ''always'' and ''under all conditions''
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- as associated with (that is, manifested as) the subject or knower (or Consciousness limited by the mind)
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Thus the innermost aim of man is to exist indefinitely, to have knowledge and happiness, absolutely unlimited by any restrictions of time or space. The seed to realize this aim of man is found in the instinctive abhorrence of death / suffering (opposite of existence), ignorance (opposite of knowing) and misery (the opposite of happiness). The three characteristics of existence, knowledge and happiness are thus essential to the very nature of conscious life and the attainment of a perfect state of these three characteristics is a supreme state beyond any kind of known limitation.<ref name=":4">Aiyar, Krishnaswami R. (Reprint 1978) ''Outlines of Vedanta'' Bombay: Chetana Pvt. Ltd. pp. 1-7</ref>
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- as associated with the object
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=== Person, Thing and The Supreme Entity ===
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[[Srishti (सृष्टिः)|Sristhi]] or Creation is found to consist of entities which are either ''persons'' or ''things'' which have the characteristics of ''nama (name)'' and ''rupa (form).'' The words ‘organic’ and ‘inorganic’, ‘conscious’ and ‘unconscious’, ‘subject and object’, are often used instead of 'persons' and 'things'.  However, here we allude to the terms person and things.  Both the person and things have three inseparable characteristics:-  
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- as associated with the mental state and perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.
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'''- A person: He is, he knows, he enjoys.'''
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===Basic questions===
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'''- A thing: It is, it is known, it is enjoyed.'''
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The schools of Vedānta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]] and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.
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The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between atman and Brahman:{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}}
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The common characteristic therefore of a person and of a thing is that he or it is (i.e., he/it exists). The Vedanta teaches us the existence of a third entity which transcends and comprehends all creation and whose characteristics therefore are '''that it is, it knows and is known, enjoys and is enjoyed'''. Such a third entity is a Supreme Entity and has specific set of attributes, chiefly of transcendence. The highest goal of human life is the realization in actual experience of that Supreme Entity. This realization can be made possible only in successive stages of practical training. Note that the word ‘God’, in ordinary parlance, connotes a ‘personality’, ever so Supreme and Transcendent, while the word ‘Brahman’ signifies that Transcendent Supreme Being who is strictly impersonal.<ref name=":4" />
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* According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}}
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* According to Dvaita the jīvātman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.  
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* According to Vishishtadvaita, the jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.
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* According to Shuddhadvaita, the jīvātman and Brahman are like sparks and fire, Jagat is real and the jīvātman is clouded by nescience (avidya) due to Maya.
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Sivananda gives the following explanation:
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=== Necessity for Right Understanding ===
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{{quote|Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.}}
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Vedantic teachings, which were treasured as the highest and sublimest of truths reserved to be imparted only to the qualified and the tested, are in the recent centuries thrown broadcast so that they have become the common property of the worst sinner and the noblest saint. According to our Sastras the only standpoint from which we can really solve and realize the relationship between the subject or perceiver and the object or perceived is when we transcend both. No amount of reasoning can enable us to arrive at such a stage, for all reasoning assumes more or less the stable existence of the reasoning perceiver and of the perceived as well.<ref name=":5">Aiyar, Krishnaswami R. (Reprint 1978) ''Outlines of Vedanta'' Bombay: Chetana Pvt. Ltd. </ref>
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All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'',<ref group=web name="IEPBheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/#H3 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''[[Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)|Parinamavada]]'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins".{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''[[Vivartavada]]'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman:
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Thus, Vedanta teaches us to understand the concept of 'reality or stable existence' unravelling the relationship between the person and thing. Philosophers have either denied the existence of the person, thing or relationship between them.
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{{quote|[A]lthough Brahman seems to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are essentially unreal, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}
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- Some believe that the perceiver is a constant persistent individuality (Atman) and the universe is an everchanging restless mass of phenomena cognized by the perceiver as the objects of his perception, thus objects have no independent existence without the perceiver (Jagat-shunyavadins).
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- Another set of philosophers assume the permanent existence of the perceived universe and seek to analyze the perceiver. The perceiver is not a constant individuality and has no independent existence without the perceived. Just like the water in the river is always flowing and is therefore impermanent and ever-changing, so also the Atman is only a notional entity - a mere void - an everchanging succession of perceptions of phenomena (Atma-shunyavadin).
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These two sets of philosophers—the Jagatshunyavadis (Idealists) and the Atmashunyavadis (Materialists) — thus try to solve the relationship between the perceiver and the perceived by denying the existence of the one or the other.
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- A third set of philosophers (Sankhyavadins) realize there is essential difference and incompatibility of the perceiver and the perceived. The perceiver is conscious, unchanging and unchangeable in essence. The perceived is unconscious and ever-changing. All sensation is the result of contact between these two. All pain and misery is the result of this contact whether it follows immediately or after a short-lived appearance of pleasure. Once we realize that the perceiver is not and cannot be in any way related to the perceived, we are free from pain and to that end must all activities be directed. This denial of relationship between the perceiver and the perceived, this insistence on their absolute distinctness, is the basis of the [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] school of philosophy.<ref name=":5" />
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Vedanta thus, studies the above aspects in detail, as different schools of thought have proposed a different interpretation of reality and creation of the universe.
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=== Right Knowledge ===
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The great contribution of the Nyaya system is its elaborate and critical theories of investigation. All the problems pertaining to the theory of knowledge have been stated with remarkable clarity in an analytical fashion. The several instruments of knowledge or [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], together with the possible pitfalls and fallacies have been set forth in a lucid manner. The Nyaya scheme of sixteen [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or categories has supplied the Indian thinkers, through centuries, with the means of discriminating, quickly and surely the true from the false inferences making it an indispensable shastra to the study of all other systems.<ref name=":2" />
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== Schools of Vedanta ==
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As discussed in the previous section, Badarayana's Brahmasutras attempted to set forth the unanimous teachings of the Upanishads and defend them against possible and actual objections. His sutras being brief, were open to different interpretations. Various commentaries thus came to be written to elaborate the  doctrines of each Vedantic thought in their own light. Each of them tried to justify its position as the only one consistent with the revealed texts (Shrutis) and the sutras. The author of each of the chief commentaries (bhashya) became the founder of a particular school of Vedanta.<ref name=":3" /> We have various schools of Vedanta advocated by Sankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Madhavacharya and later day proponents such as Vallabhacharya, Nimbarka, and Chaitanya Prabhu. The schools are named after the relation they see between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]].
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* According to Advaita Vedanta of Sri Sankaracharya, there is no difference.
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* According to Dvaita of Sri Madhavacharya, the jivatman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.
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* According to Vishishtadvaita of Sri Ramanujacharya, the jivatman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.
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* According to Shuddhadvaita of Sri Vallabhacharya, the jivatman and Brahman are like sparks and fire, Jagat is real and the jivatman is clouded by nescience (avidya) due to Maya.
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* According to Dvaitadvaita (Bhedaabheda) of Sri Nimbarkacharya, ''Brahman'' is both different (''bheda'') and not different (''abheda'') from creation and the individual jivatman.
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Sivananda gives the following explanation:<blockquote>Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.</blockquote>
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=== Common Tenets of All Systems of Vedanta ===
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All the systems believe that the universe is a cosmos, but not a chaos. They postulate a central moral purpose as governing the universe. The universe is a moral order. There is a point in human life and purpose in the heart of the universe. The good that we do in this life is not without its reward. The evil takes its due toll from man. The universe is law abiding to the core. Moral life has its own purpose. As a corollary to this the systems postulate rebirth as well as pre-existence. They subscribe to the inevitable law of karma. [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]] points out that the individual is responsible for his acts and not a mysterious fate. The conditions of life are determined but not the will of the agent. The law of Karma applies to the conditions that are being determined and not to the agent. Most systems believe in a heaven and a hell where the individual soul gets his rewards and punishments.
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The chief subject matter of Vedanta in Brahmasutras involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning "revealing Brahman." Advaita Vedanta holds that Shuddha-chaitanya or Pure Consciousness has three forms
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# as associated with (that is, manifested as) the subject or knower (or Consciousness limited by the mind), the [[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] (pramatr) - Pramatr-chaitanyam
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# as associated with the object (Vishaya) - Vishaya-chaitanyam
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# as associated with the mental state/antahkarana (pramana) - Pramana-chaitanyam
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Perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the sense organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.<ref>Swami Madhavananda. trans., ''Vedanta Paribhasha of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra.'' Howrah: The Ramakrishna Mission Sarada Pitha. pp 14, 15</ref>
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The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]] and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.
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All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'',<ref group="web" name="IEPBheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/#H3 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''[[Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)|Parinamavada]]'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''[[Vivartavada]]'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman:
 
===Common features===
 
===Common features===
 
Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:   
 
Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:   
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* Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthanatrayi]]''—The [[Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.
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* Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthanatrayi]]''—The [[Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.
 
* Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion.  Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards must be renounced.
 
* Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion.  Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards must be renounced.
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* Bondage is subjection to [[Saṃsāra]], the cycle of death and rebirth.
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* Bondage is subjection to Saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth.
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* [[Moksha|Liberation]] is deliverance from this cycle.
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* Liberation is deliverance from this cycle.
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Traditional Vedānta considers scriptural evidence, or [[Testimony|shabda pramāna]], as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or [[Perception|pratyaksa]], and logical inference, or [[Inference|anumana]], are considered to be subordinate (but valid).{{sfn|Puligandla|1997}}{{sfn|Raju|1992}}
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Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes Vedanta irreconcileable with [[Mimamsa]].{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-176}}
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Traditional Vedānta considers scriptural evidence, or shabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or [[Perception|pratyaksa]], and logical inference, or anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid). Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes Vedanta irreconcileable with Mimamsa.
    
==Schools of Vedanta==
 
==Schools of Vedanta==
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{{Subschools of Vedanta|A basic classification of the Vedanta theologies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sheridan |first=Daniel |authorlink= |title=The Advaitic Theism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HqqfxYcw4JIC |accessdate=2012-12-12 |year=1986 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn= |page=139}}</ref>{{sfn|Raju|1992}}{{sfn|Sivananda|1993}}<ref>[http://content.iskcon.org/icj/7_2/72surya.html Gerald Surya, ''Review of "A Critique of A. C. Bhaktivedanta" by K. P. Sinha'']</ref>}}
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The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them open to various interpretations. Over a period of time, various schools of Vedanta, with different interpretations of the [[Upanishad]]s and the [[Brahma Sutra]]s arose. There are three,{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}} four,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-200}} five<ref name="Washington" /> or six{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=216}}{{refn|group=note|Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}}} which are prominent:
 
The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them open to various interpretations. Over a period of time, various schools of Vedanta, with different interpretations of the [[Upanishad]]s and the [[Brahma Sutra]]s arose. There are three,{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}} four,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-200}} five<ref name="Washington" /> or six{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=216}}{{refn|group=note|Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}}} which are prominent:
 
* [[Bhedabheda]], as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/ Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> or even the 4th century{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}
 
* [[Bhedabheda]], as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/ Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> or even the 4th century{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}
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===Achintya-Bheda-Abheda===
 
===Achintya-Bheda-Abheda===
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Founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} (1486–1534). Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} in relation to the power creation and creator, ([[Krishna]]), [[svayam bhagavan]].{{sfn|Kaviraja|year unknown}} and also between God and his energies{{sfn|Prabhupada|1972}} within the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] religious tradition. In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates as 'one-ness'.  It can be best understood as integration of strict dualist ([[Dvaita]]) view of [[Madhvacharya]] and qualified monism [[Vishishtadvaita]] of [[Ramanujacharya]] while rejecting absolute monism [[Advaita]] of [[Adi Sankara]].
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Founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534). Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'', in relation to the power creation and creator, ([[Krishna]]), [[svayam bhagavan]].{{sfn|Kaviraja|year unknown}} and also between God and his energies within the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] religious tradition. In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates as 'one-ness'.  It can be best understood as integration of strict dualist ([[Dvaita]]) view of [[Madhvacharya]] and qualified monism [[Vishishtadvaita]] of [[Ramanujacharya]] while rejecting absolute monism [[Advaita]] of [[Adi Sankara]].
    
===Advaita Vedānta===
 
===Advaita Vedānta===
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|Bhagavad Gita|}}
 
|Bhagavad Gita|}}
 
====Visishtadvaita Vedanta====
 
====Visishtadvaita Vedanta====
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The Brahman of [[Visishtadvaita]] is not exactly same as individual Atman, rather it is synonymous with [[Narayana]], the transcendent and immanent reality.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Brahman or Narayana is [[Saguna Brahman]], one with attributes, one with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless [[Nirguna Brahman]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
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The Brahman of [[Visishtadvaita]] is not exactly same as individual Atman, rather it is synonymous with [[Narayana]], the transcendent and immanent reality. Brahman or Narayana is [[Saguna Brahman]], one with attributes, one with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless [[Nirguna Brahman]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
 
====Dvaita Vedanta====
 
====Dvaita Vedanta====
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{{Vaishnavism}}
   
  Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.
 
  Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.
 
Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
 
Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
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