View source for Ancient Indian Botany (वनस्पतिशास्त्रम्)

{{ToBeEdited}}

Plants and human beings have an intimate relationship and it is well recognized since ancient times. Science in general and plant science in particular is an integral part of the Vēdas. Plants give oxygen, food and medicines to human beings and hence have to be protected at all times. References to the cultivation of cereals, such as wheat, barley, rice and ragi in the Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas-Upanishads bear ample testimony to the importance of plants as food and the development of agriculture in the Vedic times. Vedic seers were well known for their reverence to nature and natural forces and their eco-centric lifestyle is evident in the mantras of Rigveda. Yajna being the subject matter of the Vedas, there is no ritualistic activity in yajnas without the usage of a plant product.<ref name=":3">Boddupalli, R. S. (2021). Traditional knowledge of botany and agriculture revealed in the Vēda Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇās, Araṇyakās and Upaniṣads. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge'', ''20''(1), 284–297.</ref>

==Introduction==
Vrksha or tree is the symbol of life and growth. It stands for eternity and selfless well-being. [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|The four vedas]], describe many herbs, vines, shrubs and tree species used in [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajnas]]. Vajasaneya Samhita advocates reverence and devotion to trees and grains, medicinal herbs, forests, and vegetation; they are regarded as deities or devatas who are bestowed with the quality of selfless giving.<ref name=":4">Boddupalli, R. S. (2019). Project Report: Plant Biology of Yajurveda. ''Indian Journal of History of Science'', ''54''(2). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.16943/ijhs/2019/v54i2/49668</nowiki></ref>

Archeological evidence for the prehistoric use of botanical products in the Indian sub-continent, is scanty and scattered and does not allow a chronological history of the uses of plants. The oldest record of such use is from the site of Indus Valley civilization, in which cereals (wheat, barley, rice and ragi), woods and other plant products were used.<ref name=":1">Chowdhury, K. A. 1971. Botany: Prehistoric Period. In ''A Concise History of Science in India'' (Eds.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 371-375.</ref> The Indus Valley people used to live in villages, cities and towns, wore clothes, cultivated crops including wheat, barley, millet, dates, vegetables, melon and other fruits and cotton; worshipped trees, glazed their pottery with the juice of plants and painted them with a large number of plant designs.<ref name=":5">[https://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_tiwar_botany_frameset.htm Ancient Indian Botany and Taxonomy by Lalit Tiwari]</ref>

== Literature dealing with Plants ==
In the Indian Knowledge Systems, though no single work devoted to botany is known, the knowledge of botany among Indians is well known from Vedas, works on Ayurveda, Krshishastra, Arthashastra and the lexicons. Terms like [[Vrikshayurveda (वृक्षायुर्वेद)|Vrikshayurveda]] and Vanaspati vidya tell us that knowledge of botany flourished in the past and its principles and findings were the foundations to applied sciences such as [[Sasya Veda (सस्यवेदः)|agriculture]], and [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|ayurveda]].  There are many legends which indicate that ancient Indians had several beliefs associated with trees. Plant life was regarded sacred and worshipped.    

We find a mention of plants, their medicinal properties, uses as food grains, in yajnas, as wood and timber etc in various texts such as    

# Vedas - [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] of [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]], [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] describe plant life extensively.<ref name=":5" />
# Dharmasutras - Gobhilagrihya-sutra mentions that Asvattha brings danger of fire to one’s residence and that Udumbara leads to a series of optical diseases.
# Puranas - Agnipurana, Matsyapurana, Vayupurana mention about plants and their classification
# Ramayana <ref>Murugesan, A and P. Sudhakar (2013) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325144789_Plant_and_Animal_diversity_in_Valmiki's_Ramayana Plant diversity in the Valmiki Ramayana]'' Chennai: C. P. R. Environmental Education Centre</ref> and Mahabharata<ref>Mani, N. (2007). ''Panchamved Mahabharat mein Padapa Vichar''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref> describe the ecological aspects and about plants having life
# Ayurveda - Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas extensively describe various types of plants, their parts and their medicinal functions for treatment of different ailments of human beings and other creatures.
# Brihatsamhita - speaks of trees like the Asoka and Punnaga which are beneficial to warfare.<ref name=":2">Ghose, A. K. 1971. Botany: The Vedic and Post-Vedic Periods. In ''A Concise History of Science in India'' (Ed.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 375-392.</ref>
# Vrkshayurveda - 14 kandas described<ref name=":2" /><ref>A K, S., & Katti, A. (2022). Science of Plant Life - Vrikshayurveda: A Historical Account. ''International Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine'', ''12''(2), 4204–4208. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.47191/ijahm/v12i2.06</nowiki></ref>
# Arthashastra -
# Sahitya - <ref>Sengupta, A. (2017). Samskrit sahitya mein vanaspati vijnan. ''International Journal of Scientific Research in Science, Engineering and Technology'', ''3''(8), 1257–1264. <nowiki>https://www.ijsrset.com</nowiki></ref>

==Etymology==
Shabdakalpadruma<ref name=":0">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7</ref> mentions that the root word for वृक्षः (Vrksha) is व्रश्च used in the sense of छेदने, to cut. Amarakosha<ref name=":0" /> gives a few synonyms of trees depicting their characteristics.<blockquote>वृक्षो महीरुहः शाखी विटपी पादपस्तरुः । अनोकहः कुटः शालः पलाशी द्रुद्रुमागमाः ॥ vṛkṣo mahīruhaḥ śākhī viṭapī pādapastaruḥ | anokahaḥ kuṭaḥ śālaḥ palāśī drudrumāgamāḥ || (Amara. 2.4.5)

अगच्छः १४ विष्टरः १५ महीरुट् १६ कुचिः १७ स्थिरः १८ कारस्करः १९ नगः २० अगः २१ कुटारः २२ । इति शब्दरत्नावली ॥

agacchaḥ 14 viṣṭaraḥ 15 mahīruṭ 16 kuciḥ 17 sthiraḥ 18 kāraskaraḥ 19 nagaḥ 20 agaḥ 21 kuṭāraḥ 22 | iti śabdaratnāvalī ||

विटपः २३ कुजः २४ वनस्पतिः २५ अद्रिः २६ शिखरी २७ कुठः २८ । इति जटाधरः ॥ कुञ्जः २९ क्षितिरुहः ३० अङ्घ्रिपः ३१ भूरुहः ३२ भूजः ३३ महीजः ३४ धरणीरुह ३५ क्षितिजः ३६ शालः ३७ । इति राजनिर्घण्टः ॥<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%83&page=kosha</ref>

viṭapaḥ 23 kujaḥ 24 vanaspatiḥ 25 adriḥ 26 śikharī 27 kuṭhaḥ 28 | iti jaṭādharaḥ || kuñjaḥ 29 kṣitiruhaḥ 30 aṅghripaḥ 31 bhūruhaḥ 32 bhūjaḥ 33 mahījaḥ 34 dharaṇīruha 35 kṣitijaḥ 36 śālaḥ 37 | iti rājanirghaṇṭaḥ ||</blockquote>They are vrksha, mahīruhaḥ śākhī viṭapī pādapa, taruḥ, anokahaḥ kuṭaḥ śālaḥ drudruma and palāśī according to Amarakosha; agacchaḥ, viṣṭaraḥ, mahīruṭ, kuciḥ, sthiraḥ, kāraskaraḥ, nagaḥ, agaḥ, kuṭāraḥa as per Shabdaratnavali and other terms are synonyms for trees. A few term and their meanings are explained below.
*महीरुह (मह्यां रोहति जायत इति) - that which gets planted and grows on Earth
*शाखिन् (शाखाऽस्त्यस्य।) - that which is branching, ramifying
*विटपिन् (विटपोऽस्यास्ति)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D</ref> - that which has branches or boughs
*पादप (पादेन मूलेन पिबति रसानिति)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AA</ref> that which drinks (sap) from feet (roots)
*तरु (तरति समुद्रादिकमनेनेति as per Shabdakalpadhruma)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81</ref> that by which people overcome heat
*अनोकह (अनसः शकटस्य अकं गमनं) that which does not quit his home or place (does not move)
*कुटः (कौटिल्ये as per Vachaspatyam)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F</ref> that which is crooked
*शालः (वृक्षभेदे) a kind of a very tall and stately tree
*पलाशी (पलाशं विद्यतेऽस्य)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D</ref> which has leaves
*अगमः (न गच्छतीति)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE</ref> that which doesn’t move
Similar scientific basis was adopted in naming the different varieties of plants based on various factors. Plants were named according to special association with deities (e.g. Datura is called Sivasekhara as the flower is associated with Siva), their medicinal nature (e.g. Dadrughna or Cassia fistula is that which cures ring-worm), their domestic utility (e.g. karpasa (cotton) that out of which clothes are woven), special characteristics (e.g., phenilaṃ or ''Sapindus emarginatus'' from the Sapindaceae (Soapberry) family have seeds that lather or foam with water), special morphological features such as the number of leaflets in a compound leaf (e.g. Saptaparṇa (सप्तपर्ण) is identified with ''Alstonia scholaris'' (the blackboard tree)), nature of shape of the leaf (e.g. dirghapatraka (दीर्घपत्रक) is one with long leaves as in sugar-cane, ashvaparnaka refers to Shorea robusta whose leaves resemble the shape of the ear of a horse), shape and color of flowers (e.g. vakrapushpa or Sesbania grandifolia with papilionaceous flowers), and other characteristics like Sataparvika or grasses having hundred (many) joints in its stem, apushpaphalada refers to jackfruit where fruits arise without (apparent) flowers. Thus naming of plants primarily involved its identification characteristic.<ref name=":8" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Table 1: The terms used for plants in Shrimad Bhagavatam 
वनस्पत्योषधिलता त्वक्सारो वीरुधो द्रुमाः ॥ 
!Sanskrit Name
!English Term
!Derivation/Explanation from Shabdakalpadhruma and Vachaspatyam and Koshas
|-
|वृक्षः (vṛkṣaḥ)
|Tree which bears both fruits and flowers
|Derived from the root व्रश्च used in the sense of छेदने or to cut, the one that gets cut
|-
|वनस्पतिः (vanaspatiḥ)
|It means 'the lord over forest.' A tree or forest in general 
|विना पुष्पं फलिद्रुमः । अपुष्पाः फलवन्तो ये ते वनस्पतयः स्मृताः ॥ वृक्षमात्रम् । इति मेदिनी।<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83+</ref><nowiki> vinā puṣpaṃ phalidrumaḥ | apuṣpāḥ phalavanto ye te vanaspatayaḥ smṛtāḥ || vṛkṣamātram | iti medinī |</nowiki>

Vanaspatis or trees bear fruit without an apparent flowering stage.
|-
|द्रुमाः (drumāḥ)
|A tree
|ये पुष्पैः फलन्ति ते द्रुमाः ।<ref name=":9">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0</ref><nowiki> ye puṣpaiḥ phalanti te drumāḥ |</nowiki>
A tree that bears fruits through flowers is termed drumāḥ.
|-
|ओषधयः (oṣadhayaḥ)
|It is a plant or medicinal herb that lasts for one year (annual plants)
|ओषधयः फलपाकान्ताः ।<ref name=":9" /><nowiki> oṣadhayaḥ phalapākāntāḥ | </nowiki>
one that bears abundant flowers and fruits, and withers after the fruiting phase is termed oṣadhi
|-
|लता/वल्ली 
वीरुधः (latā/vallī

vīrudhaḥ)
|Creepers
|लता आरोहणापेक्षाः ।<ref name=":9" /><nowiki> latā ārohaṇāpekṣāḥ |</nowiki>
Lata is a creeper tending to spread and climb up (with support) शाखादिरहिता गुडूच्यादिः । and is devoid of branches e.g., Guduchi and others; काठिन्येन आरोहणानपेक्षा वीरुधः । Creepers without a tendency to climb, and having thorns are called vīrudha (spreading on the ground).
|-
|त्वक्सार (tvaksāraḥ)
|Pipe plants
|त्वक्सारो वेण्वादयः ।<ref name=":9" /><nowiki> tvaksāro veṇvādayaḥ | They include the pipe-plants such as bamboo and others</nowiki>
|}

== Plants in Vedic Literature ==

=== Reverence For Plants ===
Reverence to trees, plants and medicinal herbs which have evolved even before human beings existed in India since Vedic times. In Rigveda, 10th Mandala Sukta 97<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AF%E0%A5%AD Manda 10 Sukta 97])</ref> the trees are hailed as the divine mothers<ref name=":8">Majumdar, G. P. (1927). ''VANASPATI: PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE AS IN INDIAN TREATISES AND TRADITIONS''. The University of Calcutta. (pp.151)</ref>

* शतं वो अम्ब धामानि सहस्रमुत वो रुहः । अधा शतक्रत्वो यूयमिमं मे अगदं कृत ॥२॥ O mother (herb), hundreds are the places where you arise and work, thousands your varieties and extensions, and hundreds your gifts and efficacies. Make this life free from affliction and disease. 
* ओषधीरिति मातरस्तद्वो देवीरुप ब्रुवे । सनेयमश्वं गां वास आत्मानं तव पूरुष ॥४॥ O plant! I hail you, the divine mother (of mankind).

=== Rigveda ===
The [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]] has frequent references to the use of the plough, the sowing of seeds, the cutting of corn with the sickle, the threshing and winnowing of the corn, the practice of channel irrigation and the like. Agricultural pursuits definitely made further progress as is evidenced by the use of larger and heavier plough, mention of several types of agricultural produce such as wheat, beans, corn, sesamum, extraction of oil from sesamum, relationship between seasons and the harvest, plant diseases and some attempt to deal with them with magical spell.<ref name=":2" /> The terms like Vriksha (trees), Oshadhi (herbs), lata (creepers), gulma (shrub), bheshaja (medicinal plants) occur frequently in the mantras. 

The most celebrated plant that finds frequent mention in the ''Rgveda'' and later ''Samhitas'' is the Soma plant. The Vedic Indians hail ''Soma'' as the Lord of the forest (''vanaraja''). The botanical identity of Soma plant, however, has not been decided till today. The probable candidates are ''Ephedra'' (a Gymnosperm); ''Sarcostemma'' (flowering plant); and mushroom (a fungus).<ref name=":5" />

Apart from these we find mention of Cotton (Gossypium sps), which is and was recognized as a commercially important in the Indus Valley civilization. People not only grew cotton but devised methods of ginning, spinning and weaving it into clothes.<ref name=":1" />

Indus Valley archeological findings further record the use of wood particularly deodar (Cedrus deodara) and rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia) for a coffin, and Indian jujube or ber in Hindi (Zizyphus jujuba) for a wooden mortar for pounding grains. Choice of these woods for specific purposes shows not only knowledge of where the trees grow but also of the characteristic qualities of the woods used. Timbers recovered from Lothal in Gujarat were of Acacia sps., Tectona grandis, Adina cordifolia indicate that the Harappans knew of the quality of these timbers nearly as much as we know of them today.<ref name=":1" />

=== Yajurveda ===
The trees and plants revealed in the Vēdas are the key for the ritualistic activities or yajñas. Initiating any yajña begins primarily with the covering of the yajñavēdi (yajña alter) with the darbha [Desmostachya bipinnata], which is a grass. Several implements used in yajñas are manufactured from the wood of specified trees was described in Yajurveda. Yajñas and yāgās being the fundamental characteristics of the Yajurveda, involved extensive usage of plant products. The names of plants, trees and their products that are specifically used in the yajñas, yāgās, hōmās and iṣṭis are elaborately described in the Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇās.<ref name=":3" />
[[File:Samidhas cherished by Agni.png|thumb|Seven samidhas of importance in yajñas]]
The homa involves two things– the material to be offered in yajña and the implement used during the yajña. Of them, the ‘samidhas’ are very commonly used as the materials from several trees and plants offered into the fire of yajñas. Seven are cherished offerings to Agni include<ref name=":4" />

* aśvattha, 
* udumbara, 
* palāśa, 
* śami, 
* vaikankata, 
* aśanihata, 
* puskara parna

Several botanical terms are described in the four Vēdas and particularly in the Yajurvēda. The Taittriya Samhita and the Vajasaneya Samhita describe and explain that plants comprise of various parts and the botanical terms mentioned are identified with those modern botany. Classifying plants according to their vegetative and reproductive properties, form and growth is similar to that of the modern classifications of the plant kingdom by Carolus Linnaeus and others. Another interesting feature noticed in the Vajasaneya Samhita, Taittriya Brahmana and Atharvaveda is the description of an entire region by the type of plants growing in that area, e.g. naḍvala (a place abounding in reeds), śipālya (a region where the plant śipala grows).<ref name=":4" />

=== Atharvaveda ===
The growing acquaintance with plant life is further reflected in the appreciation of the medicinal properties of plants and in the appearance of a class of Atharvan priests specializing in the herbal treatment of diseases.<ref name=":2" /> In [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] the type, shape and morphology of plants is described making it the earliest recorded authority on plant morphology. Atharvaveda sukta (8.7.12) elaborately describes various plant parts and its medicinal values to remove human ailments, thus throwing light on the fact that plant medicines where highly developed since ancient times.<ref name=":3" />
== Plants are Living Beings ==
Plants have been regarded as having sensitivity, feelings and the elemental nature of plants are described in the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata. In the Bharadvaja Bhrigu Samvada, Maharshi Bharadwaja asks that since trees can neither see nor hear, nor smell, no feel pleasure, nor have a sense of touch, how then are they animate or living and how are they constituted by the five elements or panchabhutas? (Mahabharata Shan. Parv. 184.6-9)<ref>Sastri, R. (2009). [https://archive.org/details/mahabharat05ramauoft/page/4893/mode/1up ''Mahabharata: Vol. 5 Shanti Parva''.] </ref><blockquote>भरद्वाज उवाच।

पञ्चभिर्यदि भूतैस्तु यक्ताः स्थावरजङ्गमाः। स्थावराणां न दृश्यन्ते शरीरे पञ्च धातवः।। 12-184-6

अनूष्मणामचेष्टानां घनानां चैव तत्त्वतः। वृक्षा नोपलभ्यन्ते शरीरे पञ्च धातवः।। 12-184-7

न शृणुन्ते न पश्यन्ति न गन्धरसवेदिनः। न चस्पर्शं विजानन्ति ते कथं पाञ्चभौतिकाः।। 12-184-8

अद्रवत्वादनग्नित्वादभूतित्वादवायुतः। आकाशस्याप्रमेयत्वाद्वृक्षाणां नास्ति भौतिकम्।। 12-184-9

भृगुरुवाच।

घनानामपि वृक्षाणामाकाशोऽस्ति न संशयः। तेषां पुष्पफलव्यक्तिर्नित्यं समुपपद्यते।। 12-184-10

ऊष्मतो म्लायते वर्णं त्वक्फलं पुष्पमेव च। म्लायते शीर्यते चापि स्पर्शस्तेनात्र विद्यते।। 12-184-11

वाय्वग्न्यशनिनिष्पेषैः फलं पुष्पं विशीर्यते। श्रोत्रेण गृह्यते शब्दस्तस्माच्छृण्वन्ति पादपाः।। 12-184-12

वल्ली वेष्टयते वृक्षं सर्वतश्चैव गच्छति। न ह्यदृष्टेश्च मार्गोऽस्ति तस्मात्पश्यन्ति पादपाः।। 12-184-13

पुण्यापुण्यैस्तथा गन्धैर्धूपैश्च विविधैरपि। अरोगाः पुष्पिताः सन्ति तस्माज्जिघ्रन्ति पादपाः।। 12-184-14

पादैः सलिलपानाच्च व्याधीनां चापि दर्शनात्। व्याधिप्रतिक्रियत्वाच्च विद्यते रसनं द्रुमे।। 12-184-15

वक्रेणोत्पलनालेन यथोर्ध्वं जलमाददेत्। तथा पवनसंयुक्तः पादेंः पिबति पादपः ॥ १६॥ 12-184-16

सुखदुःखयोश्च ग्रहणाच्छिन्नस्य च विरोहणात्। जीवं पश्यामि वृक्षाणामचैतन्यं न विद्यते।। 12-184-17

तेन तज्जलमादत्तं जरयत्यग्निमारुतौ। आहारपरिणामाच्च स्नेहो वृद्धिश्च जायते।। 12-184-18</blockquote>Maharshi Bhrigu replies<ref>Soni, S. (2006). ''India’s glorious scientific tradition''. Ocean Books. </ref>

“O Sage, although the trees seem solid, yet there is no doubt that they have the space. That is why it is possible for them to bear fruits and flowers.”

“The heat that the trees have shrivels or withers the leaves, the bark, the flowers and the fruits and they fall off. Therefore, it also proves that they have the sense of touch.”

“It has also been seen that when there is a loud sound like that of the harsh winds, fire, thunder, etc, the flowers and the fruits of trees fall off. This proves that trees can hear also.”

“The creeper covers the tree from all sides and climbs right to the top. No one can find his way unless he can see. This proves that trees can see too.”

“With pure and holy fragrance, the tree becomes healthy and grows better. This proves that they can smell also.”

“They drink water from their roots and if they are suffering from some disease, we can put some medicine in their roots. This way, we can treat them too. This proves that trees have the sense of taste.”

“Such as a man sucks water through a lotus stem into his mouth, likewise trees suck water through their roots upward with the help of wind.”

“When a tree is cut, it sprouts again and they accept joys and sorrows. Hence, I see that trees also have life and that they are not non-living things.”

“The wind and the heat inside the tree help it to digest the water that it takes in from its roots. Complete assimilation of the food gives it glossiness and it grows well.”

== Uses of Plants ==
प्रदूषनिवारकाः ॥ Pollution Preventors

Yajuveda mentions that plants prevent pollution and hence are called शमिता (शमनकर्ता)<ref name=":6" /> 

वनस्पतिः शमिता देवोऽ अग्निः स्वदन्तु हव्यं मधुना घृतेन ॥ (Shuk. Yaju. 29.35)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 29])</ref>

॥ Arogya karaka

Kaushitaki Brahmana describes plants as 

यद् उग्रो देव ओषधयो वनस्पतयस् तेन । न ह वा एनम् उग्रो देवो हिनस्ति ।
== स्थावराणां लक्षणम् ॥ Plant Characteristics ==
Along with reverence, in Indian traditions plants were regarded as life force or prana and not inanimate or lifeless things; they have life even if they are immobile. Like any animate creature, they are sensitive to cold and heat, they feel happiness and sorrow, they drink water from their roots and also fall sick, etc. 

Shrimad Bhagavata Purana, points out the general characteristics of plants as follows: 

तेषां लक्षणं यथा, “उत्स्रोतसस्तमःप्राया अन्तःस्पर्शा विशेषिणः ॥” इति श्रीभागवतम् ॥ 

# उत्स्रोतसः - ऊर्द्ध्वं स्रोत आहारसञ्चारो येषां ते । the process of uptake of food from below (from the ground) through upward channels 
# तमःप्रायाः - अव्यक्तचैतन्याः । dormancy of consciousness,  
# अन्तःस्पर्शाः - स्पर्शमेव जानन्ति नान्यत्तदापि अन्तरेव न बहिः । have an inner feeling 
# विशेषिणः - of many varieties due to  

In Aitareya Brahmana and Koushitaki Brahamana, vanaspati or plants are termed as "Prana" because they protect mankind by giving prana-shakti or oxygen.<ref name=":6">Mishra, D. K. (2007). ''Vaidik vangmay mein Vanaspati Vijnan ka svarup''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref><ref>Dvivedi, K. D. (2000). ''Vedon men Vijnana: Positive Sciences in the Vedas'' (2nd ed.). Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad.</ref>

वनस्पतिं यजति प्राणो वै वनस्पतिः प्राणमेव तत्प्रीणाति प्राणं यजमाने दधाति..(Aite. Brah. 2.4)<ref>Aitareya Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A5%A8_(%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE) Panchika 2])</ref>

प्राणो वनस्पतिः । (Kous. Brah. 12.7)<ref>Koushitaki Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref>

== Morphological Characteristics <ref>Kachare, S. V., & Suryawanshi, S. R. (2010). HISTORY OF PLANT CLASSIFICATION IN ANCIENT INDIAN SCIENCE. ''International Journal of Current Research'', ''8'', 056–059. <nowiki>http://www.journalcra.com</nowiki></ref>==
==== Plant Parts ====
Taittriya samhita identifies the parts of the plants as given below<blockquote>ओषधीभ्यः स्वाहा मूलेभ्यः स्वाहा तूलेभ्यः स्वाहा काण्डेभ्यः स्वाहा वल्शेभ्यः स्वाहा पुष्पेभ्यः स्वाहा फलेभ्यः स्वाहा गृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अगृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अवपन्नेभ्यः स्वाहा शयानेभ्यः स्वाहा सर्वस्मै स्वाहा ॥ (Taittiriya Samhita 7.3.19)<ref>Taittriya Samhita ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9 Kanda 7 Prapathaka 3])</ref></blockquote>Meaning: To the plants hail! To the roots hail! To the panicles hail! To the joints hail! To the twigs hail! To the flowers hail! To the fruits hail! To those that are used hail! To those that are not used hail! To those that have fallen off hail! To those that are lying (on the ground) hail! To all hail!<ref name=":8" /><blockquote>मधुमन् मूलं मधुमदग्रमासां मधुमन् मध्यं वीरुधां बभूव । मधुमत्पर्णं मधुमत्पुष्पमासां मधोः सम्भक्ता अमृतस्य भक्षो घृतमन्नं दुह्रतां गोपुरोगवम् ॥१२॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.12)<ref name=":7" />

madhuman mūlaṃ madhumadagramāsāṃ madhuman madhyaṃ vīrudhāṃ babhūva | madhumatparṇaṃ madhumatpuṣpamāsāṃ madhoḥ sambhaktā amṛtasya bhakṣo ghṛtamannaṃ duhratāṃ gopurogavam ||12||</blockquote>In Atharvaveda (8.7.12) we find plant parts as follows<ref name=":3" />

# Mūlam (मूलं)–Root
# Agrabhag (अग्रम)–Shoot apex or shoot tip
# Vīrudha (वीरुध)–creeping horizontal part
# Madhyabhag (मध्यं)–Stem or trunk
# Parṇa (पर्णं)–Leaf or leaves
# Pushpam (पुष्पम्)–Flowers 

All these parts are Amṛtasya–Sweet in content

==== Growth Habitats ====
The Oshadhi Sukta of Atharvaveda classifies the plant world into seven types:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>प्रस्तृणती स्तम्बिनीरेकशुङ्गाः प्रतन्वतीरोषधीरा वदामि । अंशुमतीः कण्डिनीर्या विशाखा ह्वयामि ते वीरुधो वैश्वदेवीरुग्राः पुरुषजीवनीः ॥४॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.4)<ref name=":7">Atharvaveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Kanda 8 Sukta 7]) Oshadhi Sukta</ref>

prastṛṇatī stambinīrekaśuṅgāḥ pratanvatīroṣadhīrā vadāmi | aṃśumatīḥ kaṇḍinīryā viśākhā hvayāmi te vīrudho vaiśvadevīrugrāḥ puruṣajīvanīḥ ||4||</blockquote>It presents an account of nine types of growth habits of plants. These are mentioned here below:

# Prastr̥ṇatī– Short plants, spreading in all directions.
# Sthambinī – Plants with moderate height and profusely branching.
# Ēkaśṛnga – Plants with monopodial branches.
# Pratanvatī – Creeping or prostrate plants.
# Ōṣadhī – Medicinal annual herb.
# Aśumatī– Plants with many stalks.
# Kaśiḍinī– Plants having articulated stem, or knotty joints.
# Viśhākhā – Plants with branches spreading in all directions.
# Manjarī – Leaves or flowers in clusters.
Manusmriti classifies all immovable creatures which grow from seeds as udbhijjāḥ and they are of two kinds - some shoot from the seeds, while others develop from stem cuttings planted in soil. Udbhijjāḥ are of eight kinds based on their growth patterns as follows<blockquote>उद्भिज्जाः स्थावराः सर्वे बीजकाण्डप्ररोहिणः । ओषध्यः फलपाकान्ता बहुपुष्पफलोपगाः ।। १.४६ ।। 

अपुष्पाः फलवन्तो ये ते वनस्पतयः स्मृताः । पुष्पिणः फलिनश्चैव वृक्षास्तूभयतः स्मृताः ।। १.४७ ।। 

गुच्छगुल्मं तु विविधं तथैव तृणजातयः । बीजकाण्डरुहाण्येव प्रताना वल्ल्य एव च ।।१.४८।। (Manu. Smrt. 1.46-48)<ref>Manu Smriti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1])</ref>

udbhijjāḥ sthāvarāḥ sarve bījakāṇḍaprarohiṇaḥ | oṣadhyaḥ phalapākāntā bahupuṣpaphalopagāḥ || 1.46 |

apuṣpāḥ phalavanto ye te vanaspatayaḥ smṛtāḥ | puṣpiṇaḥ phalinaścaiva vṛkṣāstūbhayataḥ smṛtāḥ || 1.47 ||

gucchagulmaṃ tu vividhaṃ tathaiva tṛṇajātayaḥ | bījakāṇḍaruhāṇyeva pratānā vallya eva ca ||1.48|| (Manu. Smrt. 1.46-48)</blockquote>Udbhijjāḥ are categorized as<ref name=":10">Bhattacharjee, S., & Bhattacharya, M. K. (2007). ''Knowledge of Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology of Plants in some Sanskrit Texts of Ancient India''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref>

# oṣadhi (herb)
# vanaspati (tree)
# vṛkṣaḥ (trees)
# guccha (a bunch of many creepers originating from the same root)
# gulma (plants in which many branches of stem develop just from the top of the root)
# tṛṇa (grasses)
# pratānā (plants with tendrils)
# vally (creepers twinning around a tree)

==== Classification of Plants ====
{| class="wikitable"
|+Table 2:  Classification of Plants in Indian Treatises
!Text
!Reference
!Classification
!Based on
|-
|Rigveda Oshadhi sukta (10.97)
|याः फलिनीर्या अफला अपुष्पा याश्च पुष्पिणीः । बृहस्पतिप्रसूतास्ता नो मुञ्चन्त्वंहसः ॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.97.15)


yāḥ phalinīr yā aphalā apuṣpā yāś ca puṣpiṇīḥ | bṛhaspatiprasūtās tā no muñcantv aṃhasaḥ 
|
# phalinī - bearing fruits
# aphalā - not bearing fruits
# apuṣpā - non-flowering
# puṣpiṇīḥ - flowering plants

All these progeny of Brhaspati, energized by the physician, relieve us from suffering.<ref>Rigveda Samhita with Sayanacharya Bhashya, Vol 4. Poona: Vaidik Samshodhan Mandal (pp. 656)</ref>
|flowering and fruiting nature<ref name=":10" />
|-
|Atharvaveda  Oshadhi sukta (8.7.27)
|<nowiki>पुष्पवतीः प्रसूमतीः फलिनीरफला उत । puṣpavatīḥ prasūmatīḥ phalinīraphalā uta | (Atha. Veda. 8.7.27) </nowiki><ref name=":7" />
|
# puṣpavatī - bearing flowers
# prasūmatī - bearing flowers
# phalinī - bearing fruits
# aphalā - not bearing fruits
|flowering and fruiting nature<ref name=":10" />
|-
|Chandogya Upanishad
|तेषां खल्वेषां भूतानां त्रीण्येव बीजानि भवन्त्याण्डजं जीवजमुद्भिज्जमिति ॥ १ ॥ (Chan. Upan. 6.3.1)<ref>Chandogya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Adhyaya 6 Khanda 3])</ref>
|
# Aṇḍa-ja – organism born from the egg (egg-born)
# Jīva-ja – organism born alive
# Udbhij-ja – sprouting/originating from the ground (germinating or germination)
|fundamental classification based on place of origin of the organism;
|-
|Shrimad Bhagavatam
|वनस्पत्योषधिलता त्वक्सारा वीरुधो द्रुमाः ।

उत्स्रोतसस्तमःप्राया अन्तःस्पर्शा विशेषिणः ॥ १९ ॥ vanaspatyoṣadhilatā tvaksārā vīrudho drumāḥ |

utsrotasastamaḥprāyā antaḥsparśā viśeṣiṇaḥ ॥ 19 (Bhag. Pura. 3.10.19)<ref>Shrimad Bhagavata Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6 Skanda 3 Adhyaya 10])</ref>
|
# vanaspati (tree)
# oṣadhi (herb)
# latā (that grow with support)
# tvaksārā (pipe-plants)
# vīrudha (creepers without support)
# drumāḥ (trees)
| based on morphological characteristics as explained in Table 1
|-
|Kautilya's Arthashastra
|
|
# sadaaru varga (timber yielding trees)
# Venu-varga (group of reeds or bamboos)
# Valli varga ( group of creepers)
# Valka varga (group of fibre-yielding plants)
# Rajjubandha varga (group of plants constituting raw materials for ropes)
# Patra varga (plant leaves used for writing or as utensils)
# Pushpavarga (for dyes)
# Oushadha varga (for medicines)
# Vishavarga (poison yielding plants)
|based on economic uses
|-
|}

==== Charaka Samhita ====
Acharya Charaka alludes to plant classification and identification of plant parts in the context of preparing drugs. According to Sutrasthana (1.72) there are four types of plants<ref>Singh R.H., Singh G., Sodhi J.S., Dixit U.. (2020). Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya. In: Dixit U., Deole Y.S., Basisht G., (Eds.), Charak Samhita New Edition (1<sup>st</sup> ed. pp.3). CSRTSDC. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s01.003</nowiki></ref><blockquote>फलैर्वनस्पतिः पुष्पैर्वानस्पत्यः फलैरपि| ओषध्यः फलपाकान्ताः प्रतानैर्वीरुधः स्मृताः||७२|| phalairvanaspatiḥ puṣpairvānaspatyaḥ phalairapi| oṣadhyaḥ phalapākāntāḥ pratānairvīrudhaḥ smṛtāḥ||72|| (Char. Samh. 1.72)<ref name=":11">Charaka Samhita ([https://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/index.php?title=Deerghanjiviteeya_Adhyaya#Plant.E2.80.99s_parts_used_as_drugs Sutrasthana 1])</ref></blockquote>Based in the fruiting and flowering nature of the plant they are of four types

# फलैर्वनस्पतिः - plants which bear fruit without visible flowers are known as vanaspati (Gymno-spermia). 
# पुष्पैर्वानस्पत्यः - plants bearing both flowers and fruits are known as vanaspatya (angio-spermia). 
# ओषध्यः - The plants which die out after flowering are known as aushadhi (annuals). 
# वीरुधः - The plants which creep or twine are known as virudha (creepers).

In Sutrasthana (1.74) plant parts used for the preparation of drugs are mentioned.<blockquote>मूलत्वक्सारनिर्यासनाल(ड)स्वरसपल्लवाः| क्षाराः क्षीरं फलं पुष्पं भस्म तैलानि कण्टकाः||७३||

पत्राणि शुङ्गाः कन्दाश्च प्ररोहाश्चौद्भिदो गणः|७४| mūlatvaksāraniryāsanāla(ḍa)svarasapallavāḥ| kṣārāḥ kṣīraṃ phalaṃ puṣpaṃ bhasma tailāni kaṇṭakāḥ||73||

patrāṇi śuṅgāḥ kandāśca prarohāścaudbhido gaṇaḥ|74| (Char. Samh. 1.73-74)<ref name=":11" /></blockquote>The roots, bark, pith, exudation, stalk, juice, sprouts, alkalis, latex, fruits, flowers, ash, oil, thorns, leaves, buds, bulbs and off-shoots of the plants are used as drugs. 

In Sutrasthana (27.4)<ref>Jaiswal M.L., Mandal S.K., Deole Y. S.. (2020). Annapanavidhi Adhyaya. In: Sirdeshpande M.K., Deole Y.S., Basisht G., (Eds.), Charak Samhita New Edition (1<sup>st</sup> ed. pp.29). CSRTSDC. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s01.029</nowiki></ref> Acharya Charaka gives a classification of plants based on their food value.

# शमीधान्यवर्गः (class of pulses) - Green-gram (''mudga''), Horse-gram (Dolichos biflorus) etc., belong to this class and they are of twelve kinds.
# शूकधान्यवर्गः (class of corns) - rice, wheat, barley etc., belong to this class. 
# शाकवर्गः (vegetables) - 18 vegetables
# फलवर्गः (fruits) - various types of fruits
# हरितवर्गः (green herbs) - ginger/''adraka'' (Zingiber officinale), lemon/ ''jambira'' (Citrus limon), Coriander/''dhanyaka'' (Coriandrum sativum are among this class
# इक्षुवर्गः (sugarcane and its products) - sugarcane juice and derived products such as guda or jaggery belong this class.
# Oils such as til, castor, rapeseed oil etc., and other oils used in cooking.

== Plants in Indian Alchemy ==
An important aspect of the Indian alchemical practice relates to the use of a number of plants in different operations of alchemical and iatrochemical nature. The plants are even referred to as divyausadhi (divine medicinal plants). Generally their roots, leaves or seeds are used in digestion processes. Sometimes oils or exudates of certain plants are also employed. The Indian rasavadins believed that the minerals and metals would not acquire the desirable iatro-chemical properties unless they were treated or digested with one medicinal plant or the other. Even mercury, extolled as divine, should undergo this process. More than two hundred names of plants are mentioned in different texts on Rasashastra. The following is a brief account of some of the plants with particular reference to their iatro-chemical significance.<ref>Subbarayappa. B. V. Chemical Practices and Alchemy. In ''A Concise History of Science in India'' (Eds.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 327</ref>

* Agasti (Sesbania grandiflord)—purification of manahshila, makshika and vajra
* Amlavetasa (Rumex vesicarius)—to enable mercury acquire grasping properties, purification and fixation of mercury; 
* Ankola (Alangium lamarkii)—purification of mercury
* Apamarga (Achyranthes aspera)—fixation of mercury, calcination of gold and transmutation of mercury into gold
* Asuri (Sinapis ramosa) - purification of mercury; 
* Bhrnga (Wedelia calendulacea)—purification of sulphur, realgar, sulphate of iron and collyrium, ‘killing’ of mercury and iron; 
* Brhati (Solanum indicum)— ‘killing’, restraining and calcining of mercury and ‘killing’ of iron;
* Cinca (tamarind)—fixation of mercury, ‘killing’ of tin, lead and iron;
* Citraka (Plumbago zeylanica)— restraining, ‘swooning’, etc., of mercury and also ‘killing’ of iron; Devadali (Andropogan serratus)—for taking essence of metals and ratnas, incineration of mercury, etc.; 
* Dattura (Dhattura fastuosa)—purification and incineration of mercury, ‘killing’ of copper and
* transmutation of silver into gold; 
* Eranda (Ricinus communis)—transmutation of metals, killing of iron and fixation of mercury; Haridra (turmeric) — purification of lead and mercury; 
* Kadali (Musa sapientum)—purification of rasas and uparasas; 
* Kanya kumari (Aloe indica)—‘killing’, ‘swooning’, etc., of mercury, iron and copper, and transmutation processes; 
* Kulattha (Dolichos uniflorus)—extraction of the essence of orpiment, ‘killing’ of makshika and purification of mercury and diamond; 
* Musali (Curculigo orchioides) - ‘killing’, calcining and restraining of mercury; 
* Nimba (Citrus acida) transmutation processes, fixation of mercury, etc., 
* Nisacara (soma, Sarcostemma brevistigma)—imparting to mercury the efficacy of invisible movement, fixation and purification of mercury; 
* Sigru (Moringa pterygosperma) - purification of mercury, rasas and uparasas; 
* Snuhi (Euphorbia neriifolia) ‘killing’ of gold, silver and mercury; purification of lead, copper and sulphur, and transmutation processes;
* Triphala (the three myrobalans) - purification of iron and bitumen ; 
* Palasa (Butea frondosa)—transmutation of metals, purification of mercury, ‘killing’ of mercury, tin and iron;
* Vishnukranta (Clitoria ternatea)—fixation of mercury and transmutation process.

== References ==
[[Category:Natural Sciences]]