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=== The Srutis ===

=== The Srutis ===

{{Main|Shruti_(श्रुति)}}

{{Main|Shruti_(श्रुति)}}

The Hindu texts were memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next. There are two historic classifications of [[Hindu]] texts: ''[[Shruti]]'' – that which is heard,<ref name="jamessruti" /> and ''[[Smriti]]'' – that which is remembered.<ref name="jamesmriti" />  

The Hindu texts were memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next. There are two historic classifications of [[Hindu]] texts: ''[[Shruti]]'' – that which is heard,<ref name="jamessruti">James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shruti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 9780823931798, page 645</ref> and ''[[Smriti]]'' – that which is remembered.<ref name="jamesmriti" />  

The Srutis are called the [[Veda (वेद)|Vedas]]. The Hindus have received the Vedas through revelation. Vedas are considered to be ''[[Apauruseya|apauruṣeya]]'', or entirely superhuman, without any author.<ref name=":0" /> The Vedas are the foundational scriptures of the Hindus.<ref name=":0" />   

The Srutis are called the [[Veda (वेद)|Vedas]]. The Hindus have received the Vedas through revelation. Vedas are considered to be ''[[Apauruseya|apauruṣeya]]'', or entirely superhuman, without any author.<ref name=":0" /> The Vedas are the foundational scriptures of the Hindus.<ref name=":0" />   

# The [[Upanishads]] that discuss meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge.

# The [[Upanishads]] that discuss meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge.

The ''Śruti'' refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient [[religious text]]s, without any author, comprising the central canon of [[Hinduism]].<ref name="jamessruti">James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shruti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 9780823931798, page 645</ref> It includes the four [[Vedas]] including its four types of embedded texts - the [[Samhita]]s, the [[Brahmana]]s, the [[Aranyaka]]s and the early [[Upanishads]].<ref name="wendydof">Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-1867-6, pages 2-3</ref> Of the ''Shrutis'' (Vedic corpus), the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.<ref name="olivelleexcel" /><ref name="wendydonigerupan">Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226618470, pages 2-3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref>

The Smritisrutis{{Main|Shruti_(श्रुति)}}

The Hindu texts were memoriz

The ''Smriti'' texts are a specific body of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] texts attributed to an author,<ref name="wendydof"/> as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than ''Sruti'' in Hinduism.<ref name=jamesmriti>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0823931798, page 656-657</ref> The Smrti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to [[Vedanga|Vedāngas]], the Hindu epics, the [[Dharmasutras|Sutras and Shastras]], the texts of [[Hindu philosophy|Hindu philosophies]], the [[Puranas]], the Kāvya or poetical literature, the ''Bhasyas'', and numerous ''Nibandhas'' (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.<ref name=bilimoriasmrti>Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pages 103-130</ref><ref name="Roy Perrett 1998 pages 16-18">Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824820855, pages 16-18</ref>

The ''Smriti'' texts are a specific body of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] texts attributed to an author,<ref name="wendydof">Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-1867-6, pages 2-3</ref> as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than ''Sruti'' in Hinduism.<ref name="jamesmriti">James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 978-0823931798, page 656-657</ref> The Smrti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to [[Vedanga|Vedāngas]], the Hindu epics, the [[Dharmasutras|Sutras and Shastras]], the texts of [[Hindu philosophy|Hindu philosophies]], the [[Puranas]], the Kāvya or poetical literature, the ''Bhasyas'', and numerous ''Nibandhas'' (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.<ref name="bilimoriasmrti">Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pages 103-130</ref><ref name="Roy Perrett 1998 pages 16-18">Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824820855, pages 16-18</ref>

Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in [[Sanskrit]], many others in regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] and some in Western languages.<ref name="goodallix">Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783, page ix-xliii</ref> Prior to the start of the common era.   

Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in [[Sanskrit]], many others in regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other [[Languages of India|Indian languages]] and some in Western languages.<ref name="goodallix">Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783, page ix-xliii</ref> Prior to the start of the common era.   

The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain some of the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=xxiii}}{{refn|group=note|These include rebirth, karma, moksha, ascetic techniques and renunciation.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=xxiii}}}}

The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain some of the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=xxiii}}{{refn|group=note|These include rebirth, karma, moksha, ascetic techniques and renunciation.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=xxiii}}}}

The Upanishads are commonly referred to as ''[[Vedānta]]'', variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the [[Vedas|Veda]]" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up The Upanishads], Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1</ref> The concepts of [[Brahman]] (Ultimate Reality) and [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]] (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the [[Upanishad]]s,{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=59}}<ref name=ptraju/> and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.<ref name=ptraju>PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887061394, pages 35-36</ref> The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.<ref name=wendydonigerupan/><ref>Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791410806, page 39; '''Quote''': "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";<br />Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210</ref> Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.<ref name=olivelleexcel>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, page 3; '''Quote''': "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".</ref><ref name=wendydonigerupan/>

The Upanishads are commonly referred to as ''[[Vedānta]]'', variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the [[Vedas|Veda]]" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up The Upanishads], Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1</ref> The concepts of [[Brahman]] (Ultimate Reality) and [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]] (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the [[Upanishad]]s,{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=59}}<ref name=ptraju/> and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.<ref name=ptraju>PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0887061394, pages 35-36</ref> The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.<ref name="wendydonigerupan">Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226618470, pages 2-3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref><ref>Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791410806, page 39; '''Quote''': "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";<br />Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210</ref> Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.<ref name=olivelleexcel>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, page 3; '''Quote''': "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".</ref><ref name=wendydonigerupan/>

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''[[mukhya]]'') Upanishads.<ref name=stephenphillips>Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, Chapter 1</ref><ref>E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, ISBN 978-1586380212, pages 298-299</ref> The ''mukhya'' Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the ''[[Brahmanas]]'' and ''[[Aranyakas]]''{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=56}} and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down [[oral tradition|verbally]]. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),<ref name=olivelleintro>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124354, page 12-14</ref> down to the [[Maurya period]].{{sfn|King|Ācārya|p=52|1995}} Of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the [[Muktika]] canon, composed from about the start of common era through [[History of Hinduism|medieval Hinduism]]. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued to being composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects unconnected to Hinduism.{{sfn|Ranade|1926|p=12}}{{sfn|Varghese|2008|p=101}}

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''[[mukhya]]'') Upanishads.<ref name=stephenphillips>Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, Chapter 1</ref><ref>E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, ISBN 978-1586380212, pages 298-299</ref> The ''mukhya'' Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the ''[[Brahmanas]]'' and ''[[Aranyakas]]''{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=56}} and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down [[oral tradition|verbally]]. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),<ref name=olivelleintro>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124354, page 12-14</ref> down to the [[Maurya period]].{{sfn|King|Ācārya|p=52|1995}} Of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the [[Muktika]] canon, composed from about the start of common era through [[History of Hinduism|medieval Hinduism]]. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued to being composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects unconnected to Hinduism.{{sfn|Ranade|1926|p=12}}{{sfn|Varghese|2008|p=101}}