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'''Asuras''' ({{lang-sa|असुर}}) are mythological lord beings in Indian and Persian (Ariæns) texts who compete for power with the more benevolent [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] (also known as ''suras''). Asuras are described in Indian texts as powerful superhuman demigods or demons with good or bad qualities. The good Asuras are called ''[[Adityas]]'' and are led by [[Varuna]], while the malevolent ones are called ''[[Danava (Hinduism)|Danavas]]'' and are led by [[Vritra]].
In the earliest layer of Vedic texts Agni, Indra and other gods are also called Asuras, in the sense of them being "lords" of their respective domains, knowledge and abilities. In later Vedic and post-Vedic texts, the benevolent gods are called ''Devas'', while malevolent Asuras compete against these Devas and are considered "enemy of the gods" or demons.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 5-11, 22, 99-102</ref>
Asuras are part of Indian mythology along with Devas, [[Yaksha]] (nature spirits) and [[Rakshasa]]s (ghosts, ogres), and Asuras feature in one of many cosmological theories in [[Hinduism]].<ref>Don Handelman (2013), One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Indian Cosmology, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004256156, pages 23-29</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0719018664, page 67</ref>
==Etymology and history==
Monier-Williams traces the etymological roots of ''Asura'' (असुर) to ''Asu'' (असु), which means life of the spiritual world or departed spirits.<ref name=monier>Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 121</ref> In the oldest verses of the [[Samhita]] layer of Vedic texts, the ''Asuras'' are any spiritual, divine beings including those with good or bad intentions, and constructive or destructive inclinations or nature.<ref name=monier/> In later verses of the Samhita layer of Vedic texts, Monier Williams states the ''Asuras'' are "evil spirits, demon and opponent of the gods". Asuras connote the chaos-creating evil, in Hindu and Persian (Arians) mythology about the battle between good and evil.<ref name=monier/>
Bhargava states the word, Asura, including its variants, asurya and asura, occurs "88 times in the Rigveda, 71 times in the singular number, four times in the dual, 10 times in the plural, and three times as the first member of a compound. In this, the feminine form, asuryaa, is included twice. The word, asurya, has been used 19 times as an abstract noun, while the abstract form asuratva occurs 24 times, 22 times in each of the 22 times of one hymn and twice in the other two hymns".<ref>PL Bhargava, ''Vedic Religion and Culture'', South Asia Books, ISBN 978-8124600061</ref>
Asura is used as an adjective meaning "powerful" or "mighty". In the [[Rigveda]], two generous kings, as well as some priests, have been described as asuras. One hymn requests a son who is an asura. In nine hymns, [[Indra]] is described as asura. Five times, he is said to possess asurya, and once he is said to possess asuratva. [[Agni]] has total of 12 asura descriptions, [[Varuna]] has 10, [[Mitra]] has eight, and [[Rudra]] has six. Bhargava gives a count of the word usage for every Vedic deity.{{cn|date=July 2015}} The Book 1 of Rig Veda describes [[Savitr]] (Vedic solar deity) as an Asura who is a "kind leader".<ref name= griffith135/>
{{Quote|
<poem>
हिरण्यहस्तो '''असुरः''' सुनीथः सुमृळीकः स्ववाँ यात्वर्वाङ् <nowiki>।
अपसेधन्रक्षसो यातुधानानस्थाद्देवः प्रतिदोषं गृणानः ॥१०॥</nowiki><ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२ Rigveda] Sanskrit text, Wikisource</ref>
May he, gold-handed '''Asura''', kind leader, come hither to us with his help and favour.
Driving off ''Raksasas'' and ''Yatudhanas'', [he] the god is present, praised in hymns at evening.
– Translated by Ralph Griffith<ref name=griffith135>[[Wikisource:The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 35|Mandala 1, Hymn 35]] Ralph T Griffith, Wikisource</ref>
May the golden-handed, life-bestowing, well-guiding, exhilarating and affluent Savitri [Asura] be present;
for the deity, if worshipped in the evening, is at hand, driving away ''Rakshasas'' and ''Yatudhanas''.
– Translated by HH Wilson<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhita01wils#page/100/mode/2up Rigveda First Ashtaka 1.35, Hymn 10] HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, pages 99-100</ref>
</poem>
|Rigveda 1.35.10}}
In later texts, such as the [[Puranas]] and the [[Itihasas]] with the embedded Bhagavad Gita, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.<ref>Nicholas Gier (2000), Spiritual Titanism: Indian, Chinese, and Western Perspectives, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791445280, pages 59-76</ref><ref name=fowlergita/> According to the [[Bhagavad Gita]] (16.6-16.7), all beings in the universe have both the divine qualities (''daivi sampad'') and the demonic qualities (''asuri sampad'') within each.<ref name=fowlergita/><ref name=chrischapple/> The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god-like saints are rare and pure demon-like evil are rare among human beings, and the bulk of humanity is multi-charactered with a few or many faults.<ref name=fowlergita/> According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita states that desires, aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various forms "are facets of ordinary lives", and it is only when they turn to lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy, cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined that natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic (Asura).<ref name=fowlergita>Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages 253-262</ref><ref name=chrischapple>Christopher K Chapple (2010), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, pages 610-629</ref>
[[Asko Parpola]] traces the etymological root of ''Asura'' to *asera- of [[Uralic languages]], where it means "lord, prince".<ref name=asko>Asko Parpola (2015), The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0190226923, pages 114-116</ref>
==Discussion==
Scholars have disagreed on the nature and evolution of the ''Asura'' concept in ancient Indian literature. The most widely studied scholarly views on ''Asura'' concept are those of [[Franciscus Bernardus Jacobus Kuiper|FBJ Kuiper]], W Norman Brown, Haug, von Bradke, Otto, Benveniste, Konow, Rajwade, Dandekar, Darmesteter, Bhandarkar and Raja, Banerji-Sastri, Padmanabhayya, Skoeld, SC Roy, [[Ananda Coomaraswamy|Coomaraswamy]], [[R. Shamasastry|Shamasastry]], Przyluski, Schroeder, Burrows, Hillebrandt, Taraporewala, Lommel, Fausboll, Segerstedt, Thieme, Gerschevitch, Boyce, Macdonnell, [[Hermann Oldenberg]], Geldner, Venkatesvaran, and [[Jan Gonda]].<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-37</ref>
Kuiper calls ''Asuras'' a special group of gods in one of major Vedic theories of creation of the universe.<ref name=kuiper>FBJ Kuiper (1975), The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion, History of Religion, volume 15, pages 108-112</ref> Their role changes only during and after the earth, sky and living beings have been created. The sky world becomes that of ''Devas'', the underworld becomes that of ''Asuras''. Deity [[Indra]] is the protagonist of the good and the Devas, while dragon Vrtra who is also one of asuras is the protagonist of the evil.<ref name=kuiper/> During this battle between good and evil, creation and destruction, some powerful Asuras side with the good and are called Devas, other powerful Asuras side with the evil and thereafter called Asuras. This is the first major [[dualism]] to emerge in the nature of everything in the Universe.<ref name=kuiper/><ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-2</ref> Hale, in his review, states that Kuiper theory on Asura is plausible but weak because the Vedas never call Vrtra (the central character) an Asura as the texts describe many other powerful beings.<ref name=hale3>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 3</ref> Secondly, Rigveda never classifies Asura as "group of gods" states Hale, and this is a presumption of Kuiper.<ref name=hale3/>
Many scholars describe Asuras to be "lords" with different specialized knowledge, magical powers and special abilities, which only later choose to deploy these for good, constructive reasons or for evil, destructive reasons. The former become known as Asura in the sense of ''Devas'', the later as Asura in the sense of demons. Kuiper, Brown, Otto and others are in this school; however, none of them provide an explanation and how, when and why Asura came ultimately to mean demon.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 2-4, 10</ref>
Ananda Coomaraswamy suggested that Devas and Asuras can be best understood as [[Twelve Olympians|Angels-Theoi-Gods]] and [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]] of Greek mythology, both are powerful but have different orientations and inclinations, the Devas representing the powers of Light and the Asuras representing the powers of Darkness in Hindu mythology.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 20</ref><ref>Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic Ontology, Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, pages 373-374</ref> According to Coomaraswamy, "the Titan [Asura] is potentially an Angel [Deva], the Angel still by nature a Titan" in Hinduism.<ref>Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic Ontology, Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, page 374</ref><ref name=Gier>Nicholas Gier (1995), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399510 Hindu Titanism], Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76, see also 73-96</ref>
===Characteristics of Asuras===
All powerful beings, good or evil, are called Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts{{Verify source|date=December 2015}}. A much studied hymn of the Rigveda states ''Devav asura'' (Asuras who have become Devas), and contrasts it with ''Asura adevah'' (Asuras who are not Devas).<ref name=kuiper/><ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-2; Note: Hale translates this to "Asuras without the Asura-Devas" in his book, see page 3 for example.;<br>For original Sanskrit, see Rigveda hymns 8.25.4 and 8.96.9 [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेदः_मण्डल_८ Rigveda - Wikisource]</ref> Each Asura and Deva emerges from the same father (''Prajapati''), share the same residence (''Loka''), eat together the same food and drinks (''Soma''), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology; the only thing that distinguishes "Asura who become Deva" from "Asura who remain Asura" is intent, action and choices they make in their mythic lives.<ref name=Gier/><ref name=yves>Yves Bonnefoy and Wendy Doniger (1993), Asian Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226064567, pages 52-53</ref>
"Asuras who remain Asura" share the character of powerful beings obsessed with their craving for ill gotten ''Soma'' and wealth, ego, anger, unprincipled nature, force and violence.<ref name=gierasurach/><ref name=stellaray/> Further, when they lose, miss or don't get what they want because they were distracted by their cravings, the "Asuras who remain Asuras" question, challenge and attack the ""Asuras who become Devas" to loot and get a share from what Devas have and they don't, in Hindu mythology.<ref name=gierasurach>Nicholas Gier (1995), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399510 Hindu Titanism], Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76-80</ref><ref name=stellaray>Stella Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier (1986), The Hindu Temple, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802230, pages 75-78</ref> The hostility between the two is the source of extensive legends, tales and literature in Hinduism; however, many texts discuss their hostility in neutral terms and without explicit moral connotations or condemnation.<ref name=yves/> Some of these tales are the basis for myths behind major Hindu Epics and annual festivals, such as the story of Asura Ravana and Deva Rama in the [[Ramayana]] and the legend of Asura [[Hiranyakashipu]] and Deva Vishnu as [[Narasimha]],<ref name=yves/> the latter celebrated with the Hindu spring festival of [[Holika]] and [[Holi]].<ref>Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam-Webster, ISBN 978-0877790440, page 455</ref>
===Symbolism===
Edelmann and other scholars state that the dualistic concept of Asura and Deva in Hinduism is a form of symbolism found throughout its ancient and medieval literature.<ref>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 427-466</ref><ref>Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 130-131</ref> In the [[Upanishad]]s, for example, Devas and Asuras go to Prajāpati to understand what is Self (Atman, soul) and how to realize it. The first answer that Prajāpati gives is simplistic, which the Asuras accept and leave with, but the Devas led by Indra do not accept and question because Indra finds that he hasn't grasped its full significance and the given answer has inconsistencies.<ref name=edelmann14/> Edelmann states that this symbolism embedded in the Upanishads is a reminder that one must struggle with presented ideas, learning is a process, and Deva nature emerges with effort.<ref name=edelmann14/> Similar dichotomies are present in the [[Purana]]s literature of Hinduism, where god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self.<ref name=edelmann14/> Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves".<ref name=edelmann14>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 439-441</ref>
The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being.<ref name=edelmann13/> In the Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such as [[Mahabali]] and [[Prahlada]], conveying the symbolism that motivations, beliefs and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.<ref name=edelmann13>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 440-442</ref>
==Asuri==
Asuri is the feminine of an adjective from asura and in later texts means ''belonging to or having to do with demons and spirits''.<ref>American Oriental Society (1852). Proceedings (American Oriental Society) 1874-1893, p.xv</ref> Asuri parallels Asura in being "powerful beings", and in early Vedic texts includes all goddesses.<ref name="hale"/><ref>Coburn, Thomas B. (1988). Devī-Māhātmya, p.200. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 8120805577</ref> The term Asuri also means a [[Rakshasa|Rakshasi]] in Indian texts.<ref>[[Henk Bodewitz|Bodewitz, H. W.]] (1990). The Jyotiṣṭoma Ritual: Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa I, 66-364, p.265. Volume 34 of Orientalia Rheno-traiectina. ISBN 9004091203</ref>
The powers of an Asuri are projected into plants offering a remedy against [[leprosy]].<ref>Shende, N.J. (1967). Kavi and kāvya in the Atharvaveda, p. 22. Issue 1 of Publications of the Centre of Advanced Study in Sanskrit, Centre of Advanced Study in Sanskrit, University of Poona</ref><ref name="garg">Garg, Gaṅgā Rām (1992). Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World: Ar-Az, p.751. Volume 3 of Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 8170223733</ref>
In Book 7, ''Asuri'' is a powerful female with the special knowledge of herbs, who uses that knowledge to seduce Deva [[Indra]] in Atharva Veda. A hymn invokes this special power in ''Asuri'', and this hymn is stipulated for a woman as a charm to win over the lover she wants.<ref name=griffith738/>
Similarly, in the Atharva Veda, all sorts of medical remedies and charms are projected as Asuri manifested in plants and animals.<ref name="hale">Hale, Wash Edward (1986). Ásura: In Early Vedic Religion, p.120-133. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 8120800613</ref> Asuri Kalpa is an ''abhichara'' (craft) which contains various rites derived from special knowledge and magic of Asuri.<ref>Magoun, Herbert William (1889). The Āsurī-Kalpa: a witchcraft practice of the Atharva-Veda</ref><ref>Goudriaan, Teun & Gupta, Sanjukta (1981). Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, p.114. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 3447020911</ref>
==Hindu mythology==
===Vishnu Purana===
According to the Vishnu Purana, during the [[Samudra manthan]] or "churning of the ocean", the [[daitya]]s came to be known as ''asuras'' because they rejected [[Varuni]], the goddess of ''sura'' "wine", while the [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]]s accepted her and came to be known as suras.<ref name="dalal">Roshen Dalal (2011). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, p.46. Penguin Books India. ISBN 0143414216 [http://books.google.co.in/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA46&dq=kashyapa+asura+deva+purana&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Rta-UeueJOWAiQfCr4DwDw&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=kashyapa%20asura%20deva%20purana&f=false]</ref>
===Shiva Purana===
Alain Daniélou states that Asuras were initially good, virtuous and powerful in Indian mythology. However, their nature gradually changed and they came to represent evil, vice and abuse of power. In Shiva Purana, they evolved into anti-gods and had to be destroyed because they threatened the gods.<ref name="Alain">Alain Daniélou (1991). ''The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series'', [http://books.google.co.in/books?id=1HMXN9h6WX0C&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q=&f=false pp. 141–142]. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. ISBN 0892813547.</ref><ref name="dalal"/>
The asuras (anti-gods) were depicted to have become proud, vain, to have stopped performing sacrifices, to violate sacred laws, not visit holy places, not cleanse themselves from sin, to be envious of devas, torturous of living beings, creating confusion in everything and challenging the devas.<ref name="dalal"/><ref name="Alain"/>
Alain Daniélou states that the concept of ''asuras'' evolved with changing socio-political dynamics in ancient India. Asuras gradually assimilated the demons, spirits, and ghosts worshipped by the enemies of Vedic people, and this created the myths of the malevolent ''asuras'' and the ''[[rakshasa]]''. The allusions to the disastrous wars between the ''asuras'' and the ''suras'', found in the Puranas and the epics, may be the conflict faced by people and migrants into ancient India.<ref name="Alain"/>
*
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
{{commons category|Asuras}}
*[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1061926 The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion], FBJ Kuiper, History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Nov., 1975), pages 107-120
*[http://www.jstor.org/stable/594460 The Creation Myth of the Rig Veda], W Norman Brown, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 62, No. 2 (Jun., 1942), pages 85-98
*[http://www.jstor.org/stable/41688830 Asura Varuna], RN Dandekar, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 21, No. 3/4 (1939-40), pages 157-191
*https://rigvedaanalysis.wordpress.com/category/uncategorized/ (Need to add material from here)
*
[[Category:Asura| ]]
[[Category:Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:Rigvedic deities]]
In the earliest layer of Vedic texts Agni, Indra and other gods are also called Asuras, in the sense of them being "lords" of their respective domains, knowledge and abilities. In later Vedic and post-Vedic texts, the benevolent gods are called ''Devas'', while malevolent Asuras compete against these Devas and are considered "enemy of the gods" or demons.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 5-11, 22, 99-102</ref>
Asuras are part of Indian mythology along with Devas, [[Yaksha]] (nature spirits) and [[Rakshasa]]s (ghosts, ogres), and Asuras feature in one of many cosmological theories in [[Hinduism]].<ref>Don Handelman (2013), One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Indian Cosmology, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004256156, pages 23-29</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0719018664, page 67</ref>
==Etymology and history==
Monier-Williams traces the etymological roots of ''Asura'' (असुर) to ''Asu'' (असु), which means life of the spiritual world or departed spirits.<ref name=monier>Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 121</ref> In the oldest verses of the [[Samhita]] layer of Vedic texts, the ''Asuras'' are any spiritual, divine beings including those with good or bad intentions, and constructive or destructive inclinations or nature.<ref name=monier/> In later verses of the Samhita layer of Vedic texts, Monier Williams states the ''Asuras'' are "evil spirits, demon and opponent of the gods". Asuras connote the chaos-creating evil, in Hindu and Persian (Arians) mythology about the battle between good and evil.<ref name=monier/>
Bhargava states the word, Asura, including its variants, asurya and asura, occurs "88 times in the Rigveda, 71 times in the singular number, four times in the dual, 10 times in the plural, and three times as the first member of a compound. In this, the feminine form, asuryaa, is included twice. The word, asurya, has been used 19 times as an abstract noun, while the abstract form asuratva occurs 24 times, 22 times in each of the 22 times of one hymn and twice in the other two hymns".<ref>PL Bhargava, ''Vedic Religion and Culture'', South Asia Books, ISBN 978-8124600061</ref>
Asura is used as an adjective meaning "powerful" or "mighty". In the [[Rigveda]], two generous kings, as well as some priests, have been described as asuras. One hymn requests a son who is an asura. In nine hymns, [[Indra]] is described as asura. Five times, he is said to possess asurya, and once he is said to possess asuratva. [[Agni]] has total of 12 asura descriptions, [[Varuna]] has 10, [[Mitra]] has eight, and [[Rudra]] has six. Bhargava gives a count of the word usage for every Vedic deity.{{cn|date=July 2015}} The Book 1 of Rig Veda describes [[Savitr]] (Vedic solar deity) as an Asura who is a "kind leader".<ref name= griffith135/>
{{Quote|
<poem>
हिरण्यहस्तो '''असुरः''' सुनीथः सुमृळीकः स्ववाँ यात्वर्वाङ् <nowiki>।
अपसेधन्रक्षसो यातुधानानस्थाद्देवः प्रतिदोषं गृणानः ॥१०॥</nowiki><ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२ Rigveda] Sanskrit text, Wikisource</ref>
May he, gold-handed '''Asura''', kind leader, come hither to us with his help and favour.
Driving off ''Raksasas'' and ''Yatudhanas'', [he] the god is present, praised in hymns at evening.
– Translated by Ralph Griffith<ref name=griffith135>[[Wikisource:The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 35|Mandala 1, Hymn 35]] Ralph T Griffith, Wikisource</ref>
May the golden-handed, life-bestowing, well-guiding, exhilarating and affluent Savitri [Asura] be present;
for the deity, if worshipped in the evening, is at hand, driving away ''Rakshasas'' and ''Yatudhanas''.
– Translated by HH Wilson<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhita01wils#page/100/mode/2up Rigveda First Ashtaka 1.35, Hymn 10] HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, pages 99-100</ref>
</poem>
|Rigveda 1.35.10}}
In later texts, such as the [[Puranas]] and the [[Itihasas]] with the embedded Bhagavad Gita, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.<ref>Nicholas Gier (2000), Spiritual Titanism: Indian, Chinese, and Western Perspectives, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791445280, pages 59-76</ref><ref name=fowlergita/> According to the [[Bhagavad Gita]] (16.6-16.7), all beings in the universe have both the divine qualities (''daivi sampad'') and the demonic qualities (''asuri sampad'') within each.<ref name=fowlergita/><ref name=chrischapple/> The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god-like saints are rare and pure demon-like evil are rare among human beings, and the bulk of humanity is multi-charactered with a few or many faults.<ref name=fowlergita/> According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita states that desires, aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various forms "are facets of ordinary lives", and it is only when they turn to lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy, cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined that natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic (Asura).<ref name=fowlergita>Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages 253-262</ref><ref name=chrischapple>Christopher K Chapple (2010), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, pages 610-629</ref>
[[Asko Parpola]] traces the etymological root of ''Asura'' to *asera- of [[Uralic languages]], where it means "lord, prince".<ref name=asko>Asko Parpola (2015), The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0190226923, pages 114-116</ref>
==Discussion==
Scholars have disagreed on the nature and evolution of the ''Asura'' concept in ancient Indian literature. The most widely studied scholarly views on ''Asura'' concept are those of [[Franciscus Bernardus Jacobus Kuiper|FBJ Kuiper]], W Norman Brown, Haug, von Bradke, Otto, Benveniste, Konow, Rajwade, Dandekar, Darmesteter, Bhandarkar and Raja, Banerji-Sastri, Padmanabhayya, Skoeld, SC Roy, [[Ananda Coomaraswamy|Coomaraswamy]], [[R. Shamasastry|Shamasastry]], Przyluski, Schroeder, Burrows, Hillebrandt, Taraporewala, Lommel, Fausboll, Segerstedt, Thieme, Gerschevitch, Boyce, Macdonnell, [[Hermann Oldenberg]], Geldner, Venkatesvaran, and [[Jan Gonda]].<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-37</ref>
Kuiper calls ''Asuras'' a special group of gods in one of major Vedic theories of creation of the universe.<ref name=kuiper>FBJ Kuiper (1975), The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion, History of Religion, volume 15, pages 108-112</ref> Their role changes only during and after the earth, sky and living beings have been created. The sky world becomes that of ''Devas'', the underworld becomes that of ''Asuras''. Deity [[Indra]] is the protagonist of the good and the Devas, while dragon Vrtra who is also one of asuras is the protagonist of the evil.<ref name=kuiper/> During this battle between good and evil, creation and destruction, some powerful Asuras side with the good and are called Devas, other powerful Asuras side with the evil and thereafter called Asuras. This is the first major [[dualism]] to emerge in the nature of everything in the Universe.<ref name=kuiper/><ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-2</ref> Hale, in his review, states that Kuiper theory on Asura is plausible but weak because the Vedas never call Vrtra (the central character) an Asura as the texts describe many other powerful beings.<ref name=hale3>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 3</ref> Secondly, Rigveda never classifies Asura as "group of gods" states Hale, and this is a presumption of Kuiper.<ref name=hale3/>
Many scholars describe Asuras to be "lords" with different specialized knowledge, magical powers and special abilities, which only later choose to deploy these for good, constructive reasons or for evil, destructive reasons. The former become known as Asura in the sense of ''Devas'', the later as Asura in the sense of demons. Kuiper, Brown, Otto and others are in this school; however, none of them provide an explanation and how, when and why Asura came ultimately to mean demon.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 2-4, 10</ref>
Ananda Coomaraswamy suggested that Devas and Asuras can be best understood as [[Twelve Olympians|Angels-Theoi-Gods]] and [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]] of Greek mythology, both are powerful but have different orientations and inclinations, the Devas representing the powers of Light and the Asuras representing the powers of Darkness in Hindu mythology.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 20</ref><ref>Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic Ontology, Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, pages 373-374</ref> According to Coomaraswamy, "the Titan [Asura] is potentially an Angel [Deva], the Angel still by nature a Titan" in Hinduism.<ref>Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic Ontology, Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, page 374</ref><ref name=Gier>Nicholas Gier (1995), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399510 Hindu Titanism], Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76, see also 73-96</ref>
===Characteristics of Asuras===
All powerful beings, good or evil, are called Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts{{Verify source|date=December 2015}}. A much studied hymn of the Rigveda states ''Devav asura'' (Asuras who have become Devas), and contrasts it with ''Asura adevah'' (Asuras who are not Devas).<ref name=kuiper/><ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-2; Note: Hale translates this to "Asuras without the Asura-Devas" in his book, see page 3 for example.;<br>For original Sanskrit, see Rigveda hymns 8.25.4 and 8.96.9 [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेदः_मण्डल_८ Rigveda - Wikisource]</ref> Each Asura and Deva emerges from the same father (''Prajapati''), share the same residence (''Loka''), eat together the same food and drinks (''Soma''), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology; the only thing that distinguishes "Asura who become Deva" from "Asura who remain Asura" is intent, action and choices they make in their mythic lives.<ref name=Gier/><ref name=yves>Yves Bonnefoy and Wendy Doniger (1993), Asian Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226064567, pages 52-53</ref>
"Asuras who remain Asura" share the character of powerful beings obsessed with their craving for ill gotten ''Soma'' and wealth, ego, anger, unprincipled nature, force and violence.<ref name=gierasurach/><ref name=stellaray/> Further, when they lose, miss or don't get what they want because they were distracted by their cravings, the "Asuras who remain Asuras" question, challenge and attack the ""Asuras who become Devas" to loot and get a share from what Devas have and they don't, in Hindu mythology.<ref name=gierasurach>Nicholas Gier (1995), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399510 Hindu Titanism], Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76-80</ref><ref name=stellaray>Stella Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier (1986), The Hindu Temple, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802230, pages 75-78</ref> The hostility between the two is the source of extensive legends, tales and literature in Hinduism; however, many texts discuss their hostility in neutral terms and without explicit moral connotations or condemnation.<ref name=yves/> Some of these tales are the basis for myths behind major Hindu Epics and annual festivals, such as the story of Asura Ravana and Deva Rama in the [[Ramayana]] and the legend of Asura [[Hiranyakashipu]] and Deva Vishnu as [[Narasimha]],<ref name=yves/> the latter celebrated with the Hindu spring festival of [[Holika]] and [[Holi]].<ref>Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam-Webster, ISBN 978-0877790440, page 455</ref>
===Symbolism===
Edelmann and other scholars state that the dualistic concept of Asura and Deva in Hinduism is a form of symbolism found throughout its ancient and medieval literature.<ref>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 427-466</ref><ref>Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 130-131</ref> In the [[Upanishad]]s, for example, Devas and Asuras go to Prajāpati to understand what is Self (Atman, soul) and how to realize it. The first answer that Prajāpati gives is simplistic, which the Asuras accept and leave with, but the Devas led by Indra do not accept and question because Indra finds that he hasn't grasped its full significance and the given answer has inconsistencies.<ref name=edelmann14/> Edelmann states that this symbolism embedded in the Upanishads is a reminder that one must struggle with presented ideas, learning is a process, and Deva nature emerges with effort.<ref name=edelmann14/> Similar dichotomies are present in the [[Purana]]s literature of Hinduism, where god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self.<ref name=edelmann14/> Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves".<ref name=edelmann14>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 439-441</ref>
The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being.<ref name=edelmann13/> In the Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such as [[Mahabali]] and [[Prahlada]], conveying the symbolism that motivations, beliefs and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.<ref name=edelmann13>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 440-442</ref>
==Asuri==
Asuri is the feminine of an adjective from asura and in later texts means ''belonging to or having to do with demons and spirits''.<ref>American Oriental Society (1852). Proceedings (American Oriental Society) 1874-1893, p.xv</ref> Asuri parallels Asura in being "powerful beings", and in early Vedic texts includes all goddesses.<ref name="hale"/><ref>Coburn, Thomas B. (1988). Devī-Māhātmya, p.200. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 8120805577</ref> The term Asuri also means a [[Rakshasa|Rakshasi]] in Indian texts.<ref>[[Henk Bodewitz|Bodewitz, H. W.]] (1990). The Jyotiṣṭoma Ritual: Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa I, 66-364, p.265. Volume 34 of Orientalia Rheno-traiectina. ISBN 9004091203</ref>
The powers of an Asuri are projected into plants offering a remedy against [[leprosy]].<ref>Shende, N.J. (1967). Kavi and kāvya in the Atharvaveda, p. 22. Issue 1 of Publications of the Centre of Advanced Study in Sanskrit, Centre of Advanced Study in Sanskrit, University of Poona</ref><ref name="garg">Garg, Gaṅgā Rām (1992). Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World: Ar-Az, p.751. Volume 3 of Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 8170223733</ref>
In Book 7, ''Asuri'' is a powerful female with the special knowledge of herbs, who uses that knowledge to seduce Deva [[Indra]] in Atharva Veda. A hymn invokes this special power in ''Asuri'', and this hymn is stipulated for a woman as a charm to win over the lover she wants.<ref name=griffith738/>
Similarly, in the Atharva Veda, all sorts of medical remedies and charms are projected as Asuri manifested in plants and animals.<ref name="hale">Hale, Wash Edward (1986). Ásura: In Early Vedic Religion, p.120-133. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 8120800613</ref> Asuri Kalpa is an ''abhichara'' (craft) which contains various rites derived from special knowledge and magic of Asuri.<ref>Magoun, Herbert William (1889). The Āsurī-Kalpa: a witchcraft practice of the Atharva-Veda</ref><ref>Goudriaan, Teun & Gupta, Sanjukta (1981). Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, p.114. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 3447020911</ref>
==Hindu mythology==
===Vishnu Purana===
According to the Vishnu Purana, during the [[Samudra manthan]] or "churning of the ocean", the [[daitya]]s came to be known as ''asuras'' because they rejected [[Varuni]], the goddess of ''sura'' "wine", while the [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]]s accepted her and came to be known as suras.<ref name="dalal">Roshen Dalal (2011). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, p.46. Penguin Books India. ISBN 0143414216 [http://books.google.co.in/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA46&dq=kashyapa+asura+deva+purana&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Rta-UeueJOWAiQfCr4DwDw&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=kashyapa%20asura%20deva%20purana&f=false]</ref>
===Shiva Purana===
Alain Daniélou states that Asuras were initially good, virtuous and powerful in Indian mythology. However, their nature gradually changed and they came to represent evil, vice and abuse of power. In Shiva Purana, they evolved into anti-gods and had to be destroyed because they threatened the gods.<ref name="Alain">Alain Daniélou (1991). ''The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series'', [http://books.google.co.in/books?id=1HMXN9h6WX0C&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q=&f=false pp. 141–142]. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. ISBN 0892813547.</ref><ref name="dalal"/>
The asuras (anti-gods) were depicted to have become proud, vain, to have stopped performing sacrifices, to violate sacred laws, not visit holy places, not cleanse themselves from sin, to be envious of devas, torturous of living beings, creating confusion in everything and challenging the devas.<ref name="dalal"/><ref name="Alain"/>
Alain Daniélou states that the concept of ''asuras'' evolved with changing socio-political dynamics in ancient India. Asuras gradually assimilated the demons, spirits, and ghosts worshipped by the enemies of Vedic people, and this created the myths of the malevolent ''asuras'' and the ''[[rakshasa]]''. The allusions to the disastrous wars between the ''asuras'' and the ''suras'', found in the Puranas and the epics, may be the conflict faced by people and migrants into ancient India.<ref name="Alain"/>
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==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==External links==
{{commons category|Asuras}}
*[http://www.jstor.org/stable/1061926 The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion], FBJ Kuiper, History of Religions, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Nov., 1975), pages 107-120
*[http://www.jstor.org/stable/594460 The Creation Myth of the Rig Veda], W Norman Brown, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 62, No. 2 (Jun., 1942), pages 85-98
*[http://www.jstor.org/stable/41688830 Asura Varuna], RN Dandekar, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 21, No. 3/4 (1939-40), pages 157-191
*https://rigvedaanalysis.wordpress.com/category/uncategorized/ (Need to add material from here)
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[[Category:Asura| ]]
[[Category:Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:Rigvedic deities]]