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{{Other uses|Vedanta (disambiguation)}}
{{Hindu philosophy}}
{{Hindu scriptures}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}}
'''Vedanta''' ({{IPAc-en|v|ae|d|ɑː|n|t|ə}}; {{IPA-hi|ʋeːd̪aːn̪t̪}}, ''{{IAST|Vedānta}}'') or '''Uttara Mīmāṃsā''' is one of the six orthodox schools of [[Hindu philosophy]]. The term veda means "knowledge" and anta means "end," and originally referred to the classical [[Upanishads]], a collection of foundational texts in [[Hinduism]].{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}<ref>Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0143099864, page 159, '''Quote:''' The Vedic or Classical Upanishads are sometimes called Vedanta or "end (anta) of the Veda". The term occurs first after the end of the Vedic period, in the Mundaka Upanishad (4th to 3rd centuries BCE?); (...)".</ref>{{refn|group=note|Considered to be the final layer of the Vedic canon}} Vedanta also refers to various philosophical traditions based on [[Prasthanatrayi|the three basic texts of Hindu philosophy]], namely the [[Principal Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}<ref>NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7, page 35 with footnote 30</ref><ref>Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex University Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages xxiii-xxiv</ref>
Vedanta adopted ideas from other schools of Hinduism such as [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] and [[Nyaya]],<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 20-21</ref><ref>Francis X Clooney (2000), Ultimate Realities: A Volume in the Comparative Religious Ideas Project, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791447758, pages 96-107</ref> and, over time, became the most prominent of the orthodox schools of Hinduism, influencing the diverse traditions within it.<ref name=hajimenakamura3/><ref name=gavinfloodaith238/> The term Vedanta may also be used to refer to Indian philosophy more generally.{{cn|date=December 2015}} There are at least ten schools of Vedanta,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} of which [[Advaita Vedanta]], [[Vishishtadvaita]], [[Achintya-Bheda-Abheda]] and [[Dvaita]] are the best known.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}
{{TOC limit|limit=2}}
==Etymology==
The name is a morphophonological form of ''Veda-anta'' = "Veda-end" = "the [[Addendum|appendix]] to the Vedic hymns". It is also said that "Vedānta" means "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas".{{refn|group=note|Robert E. Hume, Professor Emeritus of History of Religions at the [[Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York|Union Theological Seminary]], wrote in [[Random House]]'s ''The American College Dictionary'' (1966): "It [Vedānta] is concerned with the end of the Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically."}} Vedanta can also be used as a noun to describe one who has mastered all four of the original Vedas.
In earlier writings, [[Sanskrit]] 'Vedānta' simply referred to the [[Upanishad]]s, the most important and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedānta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads.
Vedānta is also called '''Uttara Mīmāṃsā''', or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mīmāṃsā, the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry'. Pūrva Mimamsa, usually simply called [[Mimamsa]], deals with explanations of the ''Karma-kanda'' or rituals part of the Vedic [[mantra]]s (in the [[Samhita]] portion of the Vedas) and [[Brahmana]]s, while Vedanta explicates the ''Jnana-kanda'' or knowledge part of the [[Aranyaka|{{IAST|Āraṇyakas}}]] (the "forest scriptures"), and the [[Upanishads]], composed after about 9th century BCE through the common era.{{sfn|Koller|2013|p=100-106}}
The Vedanta school has been historically referred to by various names, states Richard King, with early names of the Vedanta school being Upanishadic ones (''Aupanisada''), the doctrine of the end of the Vedas (''Vedanta-vada''), the doctrine of [[Brahman]] (''Brahma-vada''), and named after the doctrine that Brahman is the cause (''Brahma-karana-vada'').{{Sfn|King|1995|p=268 with note 2}}
==Three basic texts==
All sub-schools of the vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting the [[Prasthanatrayi]], literally, ''three sources'', the three canonical texts of [[Hindu philosophy]], especially of the Vedanta schools. It consists of:<ref>Vepa, Kosla. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Dls3ROqB4iUC&pg=PA112&dq=Prasthanatrayi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dIPET8agJtHhrAeu-4zfCQ&ved=0CGMQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Prasthanatrayi&f=false The Dhaarmik Traditions]. Indic Studies Foundation.</ref>
#The [[Upanishads]], known as ''Upadesha prasthana'' (injunctive texts), and the ''Śruti prasthāna'' (the starting point of revelation)
#The [[Brahma Sutras]], known as ''Nyaya prasthana'' or ''Yukti prasthana'' (logical text)
#The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', known as ''Sadhana prasthana'' (practical text), and the ''Smriti prasthāna'' (the starting point of remembered tradition)
The [[Upanishad]]s consist of twelve or thirteen [[mukhya|major]] texts, with a total of 108 texts. The ''{{IAST|[[Bhagavad Gītā]]}}'' is part of the {{IAST|[[Mahabhārata]]}}. The {{IAST|[[Brahma Sutra|Brahma Sūtra]]s}} (also known as the ''{{IAST|Vedānta Sūtras}}''), systematise the doctrines taught in the Upanishads and the ''{{IAST|Gītā}}''.
All major Vedantic teachers, like Shankara, [[Rāmānuja]], and Mādhvāchārya, have composed often extensive commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on the ''Gita''. While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, with its syncretism of [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], and [[Upanishad]]ic thought, the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' has played a strong role in Vedantic thought.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pasricha|first=Ashu|title=Encyclopaedia of Eminent Thinkers: The Political Thought of C. Rajagopalachari, Volume 15|year=2008|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788180694950|pages=95}}</ref>
==History==
Advaita Vedanta existed prior to [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]], but found its most influential expounder in him.<ref>The seven great untenables: Sapta-vidhā anupapatti. By John A Grimes. Introduction, p.7. Motilal Banarsidass 1990</ref> Of the Vedanta-school before the composition of the [[Brahma Sutras]] (400–450 BC{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}) almost nothing is known.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Very little also is known of the period between the Brahma Sutras and Shankara (first half of the 8th century BC).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Only two writings of this period have survived: the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by [[Bhartṛhari]] (second half 5th century{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=426}}), and the ''Māndūkya-kārikā'' written by [[Gaudapada]] (7th century BC).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}
===Earliest Vedanta===
{{See also|Vedas|Upanishads|Darsanas}}
According to Balasubramanian, the Vedantic philosophy is as old as the Vedas, since the basic ideas of the Vedanta systems are derived from the Vedas.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix}} During the Vedic period (1500–600 BC{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix}}) the [[Rishi]]s formulated their religio-philosophical and poetical visions, which are further explored in the [[Upanishads]],{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix–xxx}} the ''jnāna-kānda'' of the Vedas.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxii}} The Upanishads do not contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments."{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx}} This philosophical inquiry was performed by the [[darsanas]], the various philosophical schools.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx–xxxi}}
Deutsch and Dalvi point out that in the Indian context, texts "are only part of a tradition which is preserved in its purest form in the oral transmission as it has been going on."{{sfn|deutsch|2004|p=95}} The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which Vedanta gives an interpretation.{{sfn|Deutsch|2004|p=95-96}}
===Bhedabheda and Bādarāyana's Brahma Sutras===
{{Main|Brahma Sutras}}
The Brahma Sutras of Bādarāyana, also called the ''Vedanta Sutra'',{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxii}}{{refn|group=note|The Vedānta-sūtra are known by a variety of names, including (1) Brahma-sūtra, (2) Śārīraka, (3) Vyāsa-sūtra, (4) Bādarāyaṇa-sūtra, (5) Uttara-mīmāṁsā and (6) Vedānta-darśana.<ref name = SDG>{{Citation | first = S.D. | last = Goswāmi | author-link = Satsvarupa dāsa Goswāmi | title =Readings in Vedic Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself | publisher = [https://books.google.com/books?id=ockZAAAAMAAJ] | year = 1976 | pages = 240 pages | isbn = 0-912776-88-9 }}</ref>}} are traditionally ascribed to Bādarāyana,{{refn|group=note|Estimates of the date of Bādarāyana's lifetime differ between 200 BCE}} and 200 CE.{{sfn|Pandey|2000|p=4}} but "are best understood as a group of sutras composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} They were most likely compiled in the present form around 400–450 CE,{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} but "the great part of the ''Sutra'' must have been in existence much earlier than that."{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}}
The earliest stratum of sutras in the ''Brahmasutras'' is concerned with interpretation of the Upanishads, especially the differences between the ''Chandogya Upanishad'', the ''Brhadanyaka Upanisgad'', and the ''Taittiriya Upanishad''.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} Later additions were concerned with the refutation of rival philosophical schools, especially Samkhya.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' point of view,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "Numerous Indologists, including Surendranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as the most influential school of Vedanta before Sankara."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}}}
Bādarāyana was not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}} He refers to seven Vedantic teachers before him:{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}
{{quote|From the way in which Bādarāyana cites the views of others it is obvious that the teachings of the Upanishads must have been analyzed and interpreted by quite a few before him and that his systematization of them in 555 sutras arranged in four chapters must have been the last attempt, most probably the best.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}}}
The cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26-27}}
===Between Brahma Sutras and Shankara===
According to Nakamura, "there must have been an enormous number of other writings turned out in this period, but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost and have not come down to us today".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his Sampradaya.{{sfn|Roodurmum|2002}} In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.<ref group=web>[http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html advaita-deanta.org, ''Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya'']</ref> Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later schools, which does give insight into the development of early Vedanta philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}
The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the ''Siddhitraya'' by Yamunācārya (c. 1050), the ''Vedārthasamgraha'' by Rāmānuja (c. 1050–1157), and the ''Yatīndramatadīpikā'' by Śrīnivāsa-dāsa.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Combined together,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} at least fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahman Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}{{refn|group=note|Bhartŗhari (c. 450–500), Upavarsa (c. 450–500), Bodhāyana (c. 500), Tanka (Brahmānandin) (c. 500–550), Dravida (c. 550), Bhartŗprapañca (c. 550), Śabarasvāmin (c. 550), Bhartŗmitra (c. 550–600), Śrivatsānka (c. 600), Sundarapāndya (c. 600), Brahmadatta (c. 600–700), Gaudapada (c. 640–690), Govinda (c. 670–720), Mandanamiśra (c. 670–750).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}}}
===Gaudapada and Shankara===
{{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}
Gaudapada wrote or compiled{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}} the {{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}, also known as the {{IAST|Gauḍapāda Kārikā}} and as the {{IAST|Āgama Śāstra}}.{{refn|group=note|Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine between the four chapters.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}}}} Gaudapda took over the Buddhist doctrines that [[Yogacara#Representation-only|ultimate reality is pure consciousness (''vijñapti-mātra'')]]{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines] into a philosophy of the ''Mandukaya Upanisad'', which was further developed by Shankara".{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177-178}}
Adi Shankara (788–820), elaborated on Gaudapada's work, and is considered to be the founder of Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} It was Shankara who succeeded in reading Gaudapada's ''mayavada''{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}{{refn|group=note|name=mayavada|The term "mayavada" is still being used, in a critical way, by the Hare Krshnas. See <ref group=web>[http://gaudiyatouchstone.net/mayavada-and-buddhism-%E2%80%93-are-they-one-and-same Swami B.V. Giri, Gaudya Touchstone, ''Mayavada and Buddhism – Are They One and the Same?'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://www.harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html harekrishnatemple.com, ''Mayavada Philosophy'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://www.harekrsna.com/philosophy/gss/sadhu/sampradayas/mayavada/mayavada.htm harekrsna.com, ''The Mayavada School'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada Gaura Gopala Dasa, ''The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada'']</ref>}} into Badarayana's ''Brahma Sutras'', "and give it a ''locus classicus''",{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}} against the realistic strain of the ''Brahma Sutras''.{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "The ''Brahmasutras'' themselves espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}{{refn|group=note|B.N.K. Sharma: "[H]ow difficult he himself found the task of making the Sutras yield a Monism of his conception, is proved by the artificiality and ''parenthetical irrelevance of his comments'' in many places, where he seeks to go against the spirit and letter of the Sutras and their natural drift of arguments and dialectic [...] he was fighting with all his might and ingenuity against a long line of realistic commentaries."{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}}} His interpretation, including works ascribed to him, has become the normative interpretation of Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004}}{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}
Although Shankara is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedanta school, according to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of these early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} Shankara "was the person who synthesized the ''Advaita-vāda'' which had previously existed before him".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} In this synthesis, he was the rejuvenator and defender of ancient learning.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} He was an unequalled commentator,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} due to whose efforts and contributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant position within Indian philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}}
===Bhakti===
{{Main|Bhakti|Bhakti movement}}
Bhedabheda Vedanta schools played an important role in the rise of ''bhakti'', such as [[Suddhadvaita]], founded by [[Vallabha]]<ref name="Washington" /> (1479–1531 CE), [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]], founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534){{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=248}} and [[Vishishtadvaita]] founded by [[Ramanuja|Shri Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE).
===Integration of various schools===
According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th century,
{{quote|... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}}{{refn|group=note|The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley.{{sfn|Burley|2007|p=34}} Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=24-33}} and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=27}} which started well before 1800.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=26-27}}}}}}
Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}} especially [[Vijnanabhiksu]], a [[Bhedabheda]] Vedantin.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} [[Neo-Vedanta]] too was inspired by these thinkers.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}}
==Vedanta philosophy==
===Basic questions===
The schools of Vedānta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]] and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}
The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between atman and Brahman:{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}}
* According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}}
* According to Dvaita the jīvātman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.
* According to Vishishtadvaita, the jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.
* According to Shuddhadvaita, the jīvātman and Brahman are like sparks and fire, Jagat is real and the jīvātman is clouded by nescience (avidya) due to Maya.
Sivananda gives the following explanation:
{{quote|Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|p=217}}}}
All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'',<ref group=web name="IEPBheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/#H3 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}<ref group=web name="IEPBheda" /> as well as Samkhya,<ref group=web name="IEPBheda" /> support ''[[Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)|Parinamavada]]'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins".{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''[[Vivartavada]]'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman:
{{quote|[A]lthough Brahman seems to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are essentially unreal, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}
===Common features===
Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:{{sfn|Sheridan|1985|p=136}}
* Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthanatrayi]]''—The [[Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.
* Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion. Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards must be renounced.
* Bondage is subjection to [[Saṃsāra]], the cycle of death and rebirth.
* [[Moksha|Liberation]] is deliverance from this cycle.
Traditional Vedānta considers scriptural evidence, or [[Testimony|shabda pramāna]], as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or [[Perception|pratyaksa]], and logical inference, or [[Inference|anumana]], are considered to be subordinate (but valid).{{sfn|Puligandla|1997}}{{sfn|Raju|1992}}
Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes Vedanta irreconcileable with [[Mimamsa]].{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-176}}
==Schools of Vedanta==
{{Subschools of Vedanta|A basic classification of the Vedanta theologies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sheridan |first=Daniel |authorlink= |title=The Advaitic Theism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HqqfxYcw4JIC |accessdate=2012-12-12 |year=1986 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn= |page=139}}</ref>{{sfn|Raju|1992}}{{sfn|Sivananda|1993}}<ref>[http://content.iskcon.org/icj/7_2/72surya.html Gerald Surya, ''Review of "A Critique of A. C. Bhaktivedanta" by K. P. Sinha'']</ref>}}
The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them open to various interpretations. Over a period of time, various schools of Vedanta, with different interpretations of the [[Upanishad]]s and the [[Brahma Sutra]]s arose. There are three,{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}} four,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-200}} five<ref name="Washington" /> or six{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=216}}{{refn|group=note|Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}}} which are prominent:
* [[Bhedabheda]], as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/ Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> or even the 4th century{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}
** Svabhavikabhedabheda or [[Dvaitādvaita]], founded by [[Nimbarka]]<ref name="Washington" /> in the 13th century
** [[Suddhadvaita]], founded by [[Vallabha]]<ref name="Washington" /> (1479–1531 CE)
** [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]], founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534){{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=248}}
* [[Advaita Vedanta]], founded by [[Gaudapada]] and [[Adi Sankara|Shri Adi Shankara]] around 700 CE
* [[Vishishtadvaita]], also a subschool of bhedabheda, founded by [[Ramanuja|Shri Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE)
* [[Dvaita]], founded by [[Shri Madhvacharya]] (1199–1278 CE)
Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although their works are not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers in [[India]].
===Bhedabheda===
[[Bhedabheda]] (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference",<ref name="IEPbheda"/> existed as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda"/> but Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma Sūtra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> According to the Bhedābheda Vedānta schools the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman.<ref name="IEPbheda"/> [[Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Major names of this school are [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th-9th century),<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Rāmānuja’s teacher Yādavaprakāśa,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Nimbārka]] (13th century) who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Vallabha]] (1479–1531)<ref name="IEPbheda" /> who founded [[Shuddhadvaita]],<ref name="Washington">[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03-DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']</ref> [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Caitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" />{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="IEPbheda" />
===Dvaitādvaita===
[[Dvaitādvaita]] was propounded by [[Nimbarka|Nimbārka]] (13th century), based upon [[Bhedabheda|Bhedābheda]], which was taught by [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]]. According to this school, the ''jīvātman'' is at once the same and yet different from Brahman. The jiva relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita from another. In this school, God is visualized as [[Krishna]].<ref name="Vedanta"/>
===Shuddhādvaita===
[[File:Shri mahaprabhuji.jpg|thumb|right|text|Vallabhacharya]]
[[Shuddhadvaita]] was propounded by [[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE). This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to [[Goloka]]' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "[[Pushtimarga]]" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind".<ref name="Vedanta"/>On the basis of quadruple “Proof Corpus” (pramāna catuṣṭaya) comprising [[Sruti|Srutis]] and [[Smriti|Smrutis]], [[Brahmasutra]], [[Gita]] and [[Bhagvatam|Shrimadbhagvata]], Vallabhacharya propounded the philosophy of “[[shuddhadvaita]] brahmvaad” (pure non-dualism), according to which Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankar, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman]] only. Brahman has created the world without connection with or help from any external agency such as Maya, which itself is his power. Brahman manifests Himself through the world. [[Śruti|Srutis]] say Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world (jagat).<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, “Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2)”, Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is how Vallabh’s shuddhadvaita is known as ‘Unmodified transformation’ or ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’, while Shankar’s Advaita or Kevaladvaita is known as ‘[[Vivartavada|Vivartavāda]]’. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a ‘part’. The individual soul ([[Jiva|Jeeva]] or jeevatma) and God are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. The soul is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref>“Brahmavād Saṅgraha”, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref>
===Achintya-Bheda-Abheda===
Founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} (1486–1534). Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} in relation to the power creation and creator, ([[Krishna]]), [[svayam bhagavan]].{{sfn|Kaviraja|year unknown}} and also between God and his energies{{sfn|Prabhupada|1972}} within the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] religious tradition. In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates as 'one-ness'. It can be best understood as integration of strict dualist ([[Dvaita]]) view of [[Madhvacharya]] and qualified monism [[Vishishtadvaita]] of [[Ramanujacharya]] while rejecting absolute monism [[Advaita]] of [[Adi Sankara]].
===Advaita Vedānta===
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|thumb|right|x216px|Shankaracharya]]
[[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: अद्वैत वेदान्त {{IPA-sa|əd̪ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ɑːnt̪ə|}}) was propounded by [[Adi Shankara]] (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru [[Gaudapada]], who described [[Ajativada]]. It is a<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&pg=PR7 "Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta"] By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm |title=Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Class.uidaho.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyon3IOpX-AC&pg=PA319&lpg=PA319 "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra,"] By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref> sub-school of the [[Vedānta]] (literally, ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', [[Sanskrit]]) school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction,"] By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3</ref> In the school of Vedānta, Brahman is the only reality, and the world, as it appears, is illusory. As Brahman is the sole reality, it cannot be said to possess any attributes whatsoever. An illusory power of Brahman called [[Maya (illusion)|Māyā]] causes the world to arise. Ignorance of this reality is the cause of all suffering in the world and only upon true knowledge of Brahman can liberation be attained. When a person tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to the influence of Māyā, Brahman appears as God ([[Ishvara]]), separate from the world and from the individual. In reality, there is no difference between the individual soul ''jīvātman'' (see [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]) and Brahman. Liberation lies in knowing the reality of this [[non-difference]] (i.e. a-dvaita, "non-duality"). Thus, the path to liberation is finally only through knowledge (''jñāna'').<ref name="Vedanta">[http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Vedanta Vedanta] on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia</ref>
===Vishishtadvaita===
[[Vishishtadvaita]] was propounded by [[Rāmānuja]] (1017–1137 CE) and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of [[Brahman]], and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the [[Brahman]] is asserted to have attributes ([[Saguna brahman]]), including the individual conscious souls and matter. [[Brahman]], matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds [[Bhakti]] or devotion to God visualized as [[Vishnu]] to be the path to liberation. [[Māyā]] is seen as the creative power of God.<ref name="Vedanta"/>{{refn|group=note|[[Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita]] was propounded by Sri [[Srinivasa Deekshitulu]] (950 A.D.). It is primarily related to [[Vaikhanasa]] School of thought (based on Taittiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras. It is strictly followed by the original priests of the celebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day. It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala forms. To meditate on the nishkala aspect of Brahman, the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This school propounds 'Archana' (Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana' (knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to liberation. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman is Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu must be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tirumala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the implementation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.<ref>Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam by Ubhaya Vedanta Pravartaka Srinivasa Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sariraka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri Vikhanas Trust, Tirumala 2004</ref>}}
===Dvaita===
[[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhvacharya|Madhwāchārya]] (1199–1278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his various incarnations like [[Krishna]], [[Narasimha]], [[Venkateswara|Srinivāsa]] etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards [[Brahman]], all individual souls (''jīvātman''s) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates [[Bhakti]] as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively.
Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta"/>
===Neo-Vedanta===
{{Main|Neo-Vedanta|Hindu nationalism|Hindu reform movements}}
Neo-Vedanta is a modern interpretation of Vedanta, with a liberal attitude toward the Vedas.{{sfn|King|2001}} It reconciles dualism and non-dualism,{{sfn|Sooklal|1993}} and rejects the "universal illusionism"{{sfn|Gier|2013|p=268-269}} of Shankara, despite its reference for classical Advaita Vedanta:
{{quote|Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Aurobindo (I also include M.K. Gandhi) have been labeled "neo-Vedantists," a philosophy that rejects the Advaitins' claim that the world is illusory. Aurobindo, in his ''The Life Divine'', declares that he has moved from Sankara's "universal illusionism" to his own "universal realism" (2005: 432), defined as metaphysical realism in the European philosophical sense of the term.{{sfn|Gier|2013|p=268-269}}}}
[[Mohandas Gandhi]] endorsed the Jain concept of [[Anekantavada]],{{sfn|Panicker|2006|p=190-191}} the notion that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth.{{sfn|Dundas|2004|p=123–136}}{{sfn|Koller|2004|p=400–407}} This concept embraces the perspectives of both Vedānta which, according to Jainism, "recognizes [[Substance theory|substances]] but not process", and Buddhism, which "recognizes [[Process philosophy|process]] but not substance". Jainism, on the other hand, pays equal attention to both substance (''dravya'') and process (''paryaya'').{{sfn|Burch|1964|p=68–93}}
Neo-Vedanta developed in the 19th century, in interaction with and response to colonialism.{{sfn|King|2001}} With the onset of the [[British Raj]], the colonialisation of India by the British, there also started a [[Bengali renaissance|Hindu renaissance]] in the 19th century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west.{{sfn|King|2002}} Western [[Orientalism|orientalist]] searched for the "essence" of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas,{{sfn|King|2002|118}} and meanwhile creating the notion of "Hinduism" as a unified body of religious praxis{{sfn|King|1999}} and the popular picture of 'mystical India'.{{sfn|King|1999}}{{sfn|King|2002}}
This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by the Hindu reformers, together with the ideas of [[Universalism in religion|Universalism]] and [[Perennial philosophy|Perennialism]], the idea that all religions share a common [[Mysticism|mystic]] ground.{{sfn|King|2002|p==119-120}} The [[Brahmo Samaj]], who was supported for a while by the [[Unitarianism|Unitarian Church]],{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=114}} played an essential role in the introduction and spread of this new understanding of Hinduism.{{sfn|King|2002|p=123}} Vedanta came to be regarded as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedanta came to be regarded as "then paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion".{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}
A major proponent in the popularisation of this Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta was [[Vivekananda]],{{sfn|King|2002|p=135-142}} who played a major role in the [[Hindu nationalism|revival of Hinduism]],{{sfn|Dense|1999|p=191}} and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via the [[Vedanta Society]], the international arm of [[Ramakrishna Order]]. His interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called "Neo-Vedanta".{{sfn|Mukerji|1983}} The popular understanding of Hinduism has been dominated by this [[neo-Vedanta]],{{sfn|King|1999}}{{refn|group=note|Also called neo-Hinduism{{sfn|King|1999}}}} in which mysticism,{{sfn|King|1999}} Aryan origins and the unity of Hinduism{{sfn|King|1999|p=171}} have been emphasised.{{sfn|Muesse|2011|p=3-4}}{{sfn|Doniger|2010|p=18}}{{sfn|Jouhki|2006|p=10-11}}{{sfn|King|1999}}
These notions also served well for the Hindu nationalists, who further popularised this notion of Advaita Vedanta as the pinnacle of Indian religions.{{sfn|King|2002|p=129-130}} It "provided an opportunity for the construction of a nationalist ideology that could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonial oppression".{{sfn|King|2002|p=133}}
==Influence==
The Vedanta school has had a historic and central influence on Hinduism, states Nakamura:<ref name=hajimenakamura3>Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120819634, page 3</ref>
{{Quote|
The prevalence of Vedanta thought is found not only in philosophical writings but also in various forms of ([[Hindu]]) literature, such as the epics, lyric poetry, drama and so forth. What is especially worthy of attention is that the Hindu religious sects, the common faith of the Indian populace, looked to Vedanta philosophy for the theoretical foundations for their theology. The influence of Vedanta is prominent in the sacred literatures of Hinduism, such as the various Puranas, Samhitas, Agamas and Tantras. Many commentaries on the fundamental scripture of Vedanta, the Brahmasutra, were written by the founders or leading scholars of the various sects of Hinduism, and they are transmitted to this day as documents indispensable in the respective sectarian traditions. The majority of the traditional and conservative scholars in India today, called Pandits, are students of Vedanta, and an overwhelming number belong to the lineage of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] – five-sixths of all Pandits, according to some authorities.
|[[Hajime Nakamura]] (2004)|A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Volume 2<ref name=hajimenakamura3/>}}
[[Frithjof Schuon]] summarizes the influence of Vedanta on Hinduism as, "The Vedanta contained in the Upanishads, then formulated in the ''Brahma Sutra'', and finally commented and explained by Shankara, is an invaluable key for discovering the deepest meaning of all the religious doctrines and for realizing that the ''[[Sanatana Dharma]]'' secretly penetrates all the forms of traditional spirituality.<ref>F Schuon (1975), One of the Great Lights of the World, in ''Spiritual Perspectives, Essays in Mysticism and Metaphysics (Editor: TMP Mahadevan), Arnold Heineman, ISBN , page 91</ref><ref>Klaus Witz (1998), The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120815735, page 11</ref> [[Gavin Flood]] states, "the most influential school of theology in India has been Vedanta, exerting enormous influence on all religious traditions and becoming the central ideology of the Hindu renaissance in the nineteenth century. It has become the philosophical paradigm of Hinduism ''par excellence''."<ref name=gavinfloodaith238>Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, page 238</ref>
[[Lucian Blaga]] has often used the concepts ''Marele Anonim'' (‘the Great Anonymous’) and ''cenzura transcendentă'' (‘the transcendental censorship’) in his philosophy. He was influenced by Śaṅkara’s concepts of ''Brahman'' (‘God’) and ''māyā'' (‘illusion’).<ref> Iţu, Mircia (2007), ''Marele Anonim şi cenzura transcendentă la Blaga. Brahman şi māyā la Śaṅkara (‘The Great Anonymous and the transcendental censorship in Lucian Blaga. Brahman and māyā in Adi Shankara’),'' in ''Caiete critice'' 6-7 (236-237), Bucarest, pages 75-83. {{ISSN|1220-6350}}.</ref> In Śaṅkarācārya, Brahman is understood as ''nirguna Brahman'' (‘God without attributes’), whilst Īśvara is ''saguna Brahman'' (God with attributes). [[Louis Renou]] underlines that Brahman is superior to ''Īśvara'', while [[Olivier Lacombe]] writes that Brahman is Īśvara’s superlative.<ref>Lacombe, Olivier (1979), ''Indianité. Etudes historiques et comparatives sur la pensée indienne'', Paris: Les Belles Lettres.</ref> Brahman is different than Greek Zeus, as well as than Christian or Jewish God, than Muslim Allah, because he is transpersonal.<ref> Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Filosofia şi religiile Indiei (‘Indian Philosophy and Indian Religions’)'', Braşov: Orientul latin, page. 69 ISBN 973-9338-70-4</ref> Māyā is a fundamental concept in Vedanta. It has several meanings and it has often been translated as ‘illusion’. According to L. Thomas O’Neil, māyā signifies ‘measuring the immeasurable’.<ref>O’Neil, Thomas L. (1980), ''Māyā in Śaṅkara. Measuring the Immeasurable'', New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, page 140.</ref>
==Comparison to Western philosophies==
Similarities between Vedanta and Western philosophical traditions have been discussed by many authorities. Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world, since the late 18th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity.{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} In 1785 appeared the first western translation of a Sanskrit-text.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=176}} It marked the growing interest in the Indian culture and languages.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=177}} The first translation of Upanishads appeared in two parts in 1801 and 1802,{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=177}} which influenced [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], who called them "the consolation of my life".{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=178}}{{refn|group=note|And called his poodle "Atman".{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=178}}}} Schopenhauer drew explicit parallels between his philosophy, as set out in 'The World as Will and Representation',<ref>Schopenhauer, Arthur. ''The World as Will and Representation''. Translated from the German by EFJ Payne. Dover Publications, vol. 1, chap. 1</ref> and that of the Vedanta philosophy ascribed to Vasya in the work of Sir William Jones.<ref>Jones, Sir William. ''On the Philosophy of the Asiatics''. Sir William Jones. Asiatic Researches, vol. 4, p. 164</ref> Early translations also appeared in other European languages.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=183-184}}
In the 20th century, comparisons between Advaita, western philosophy, and science took a high flight. [[Brian David Josephson]], Welsh physicist, and Nobel Prize laureate says:<ref>[http://www.truedharma.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4:synthesis-of-science-and-spirituality&catid=3:awaken&Itemid=2 "Synthesis of Science and Spirituality"]</ref>
{{quote|The Vedanta and the Sankhya hold the key to the laws of the mind and thought process which are co-related to the Quantum Field, i.e. the operation and distribution of particles at atomic and molecular levels.}}
===Spinoza===
[[Max Müller]], in his lectures, noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], saying
{{quote|[T]he Brahman, as conceived in the Upanishads and defined by Sankara, is clearly the same as Spinoza's 'Substantia'."<ref>Three Lectures on the Vedanta Philosophy. F. Max Muller. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p123</ref>}}
[[Helena Blavatsky]], a founder of the [[Theosophical Society]], also compared Spinoza's religious thought to Vedanta, writing in an unfinished essay
{{quote|As to Spinoza’s Deity—natura naturans—conceived in his attributes simply and alone; and the same Deity—as natura naturata or as conceived in the endless series of modifications or correlations, the direct outflowing results from the properties of these attributes, it is the Vedantic Deity pure and simple.<ref>H.P Blavatsky's Collected Writings, Volume 13, pages 308-310. Quest Books</ref>}}
The 19th-century German Sanskritist [[Theodore Goldstücker]] was one of the early figures to notice the similarities between the religious conceptions of the Vedanta and those of the Dutch Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza, writing that Spinoza's thought was
{{quote|... so exact a representation of the ideas of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected its founder to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus, did his biography not satisfy us that he was wholly unacquainted with their doctrines [...] comparing the fundamental ideas of both we should have no difficulty in proving that, had Spinoza been a Hindu, his system would in all probability mark a last phase of the Vedanta philosophy.<ref>Literary Remains of the Late Professor Theodore Goldstucker, W. H. Allen, 1879. p32.</ref><ref>The Westminster Review, Volumes 78-79, Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1862. p1862</ref>}}
==See also==
*[[Monistic idealism]]
*[[List of teachers of Vedanta]]
*[[Self-consciousness (Vedanta)]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|2}}
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
==Sources==
===Published sources===
{{columns-list|2|
{{refbegin}}
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{{refend}}
}}
===Web-sources===
{{reflist|group=web|2}}
==Further reading==
{{Wikiquote}}
* ''[http://www.vedantaworld.org Vedanta Treatise: The Eternities]'' by [[Swami Parthasarathy]]
* ''The System of Vedanta'' by [[Paul Deussen]]. 1912. Reprint 2007.
* ''Forgotten Truth: The Primordial Tradition'' by [[Huston Smith]]
* ''Theology After Vedanta'' by [[Francis X. Clooney]]
* ''A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy'' by [[Hajime Nakamura]]
* ''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies'' and "Vedanta Sutras of Nārāyana Guru" by [[Karl Harrington Potter|Karl Potter]] and Sibajiban Bhattachārya
* ''[http://www.sriaurobindoashram.info/Contents.aspx?ParentCategoryName=_StaticContent/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-Library/-01%20Works%20of%20Sri%20Aurobindo/-12_The%20Upanishad_Volume-12 The Upanishads]'' by [[Sri Aurobindo]], [[Sri Aurobindo Ashram]], [[Pondicherry (city)|Pondicherry]], 1972.
* ''Choice Upanishads'' by [[Swami Parthasarathy]]
* ''[http://www.vedanta.com Vedanta: A Simple Introduction]'' by [[Pravrajika Vrajaprana]]
* ''[http://www.brahmavidya.org Swami Bhoomānanda Tirtha]'' [[Narayanashrama Tapovanam]]
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{{Indian Philosophy}}
{{philosophy of religion}}
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[[Category:Vedanta| ]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Indian philosophy]]
[[Category:Metaphilosophy]]
[[Category:Vedas]]
[[Category:Philosophical traditions]]
[[Category:Ancient philosophical schools and traditions]]
[[Category:Philosophical schools and traditions]]
[[Category:Āstika]]
[[Category:Nondualism]]
{{Hindu philosophy}}
{{Hindu scriptures}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2015}}
'''Vedanta''' ({{IPAc-en|v|ae|d|ɑː|n|t|ə}}; {{IPA-hi|ʋeːd̪aːn̪t̪}}, ''{{IAST|Vedānta}}'') or '''Uttara Mīmāṃsā''' is one of the six orthodox schools of [[Hindu philosophy]]. The term veda means "knowledge" and anta means "end," and originally referred to the classical [[Upanishads]], a collection of foundational texts in [[Hinduism]].{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}<ref>Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0143099864, page 159, '''Quote:''' The Vedic or Classical Upanishads are sometimes called Vedanta or "end (anta) of the Veda". The term occurs first after the end of the Vedic period, in the Mundaka Upanishad (4th to 3rd centuries BCE?); (...)".</ref>{{refn|group=note|Considered to be the final layer of the Vedic canon}} Vedanta also refers to various philosophical traditions based on [[Prasthanatrayi|the three basic texts of Hindu philosophy]], namely the [[Principal Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}<ref>NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7, page 35 with footnote 30</ref><ref>Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex University Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages xxiii-xxiv</ref>
Vedanta adopted ideas from other schools of Hinduism such as [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] and [[Nyaya]],<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 20-21</ref><ref>Francis X Clooney (2000), Ultimate Realities: A Volume in the Comparative Religious Ideas Project, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791447758, pages 96-107</ref> and, over time, became the most prominent of the orthodox schools of Hinduism, influencing the diverse traditions within it.<ref name=hajimenakamura3/><ref name=gavinfloodaith238/> The term Vedanta may also be used to refer to Indian philosophy more generally.{{cn|date=December 2015}} There are at least ten schools of Vedanta,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} of which [[Advaita Vedanta]], [[Vishishtadvaita]], [[Achintya-Bheda-Abheda]] and [[Dvaita]] are the best known.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}
{{TOC limit|limit=2}}
==Etymology==
The name is a morphophonological form of ''Veda-anta'' = "Veda-end" = "the [[Addendum|appendix]] to the Vedic hymns". It is also said that "Vedānta" means "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas".{{refn|group=note|Robert E. Hume, Professor Emeritus of History of Religions at the [[Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York|Union Theological Seminary]], wrote in [[Random House]]'s ''The American College Dictionary'' (1966): "It [Vedānta] is concerned with the end of the Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically."}} Vedanta can also be used as a noun to describe one who has mastered all four of the original Vedas.
In earlier writings, [[Sanskrit]] 'Vedānta' simply referred to the [[Upanishad]]s, the most important and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedānta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads.
Vedānta is also called '''Uttara Mīmāṃsā''', or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mīmāṃsā, the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry'. Pūrva Mimamsa, usually simply called [[Mimamsa]], deals with explanations of the ''Karma-kanda'' or rituals part of the Vedic [[mantra]]s (in the [[Samhita]] portion of the Vedas) and [[Brahmana]]s, while Vedanta explicates the ''Jnana-kanda'' or knowledge part of the [[Aranyaka|{{IAST|Āraṇyakas}}]] (the "forest scriptures"), and the [[Upanishads]], composed after about 9th century BCE through the common era.{{sfn|Koller|2013|p=100-106}}
The Vedanta school has been historically referred to by various names, states Richard King, with early names of the Vedanta school being Upanishadic ones (''Aupanisada''), the doctrine of the end of the Vedas (''Vedanta-vada''), the doctrine of [[Brahman]] (''Brahma-vada''), and named after the doctrine that Brahman is the cause (''Brahma-karana-vada'').{{Sfn|King|1995|p=268 with note 2}}
==Three basic texts==
All sub-schools of the vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting the [[Prasthanatrayi]], literally, ''three sources'', the three canonical texts of [[Hindu philosophy]], especially of the Vedanta schools. It consists of:<ref>Vepa, Kosla. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Dls3ROqB4iUC&pg=PA112&dq=Prasthanatrayi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dIPET8agJtHhrAeu-4zfCQ&ved=0CGMQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Prasthanatrayi&f=false The Dhaarmik Traditions]. Indic Studies Foundation.</ref>
#The [[Upanishads]], known as ''Upadesha prasthana'' (injunctive texts), and the ''Śruti prasthāna'' (the starting point of revelation)
#The [[Brahma Sutras]], known as ''Nyaya prasthana'' or ''Yukti prasthana'' (logical text)
#The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', known as ''Sadhana prasthana'' (practical text), and the ''Smriti prasthāna'' (the starting point of remembered tradition)
The [[Upanishad]]s consist of twelve or thirteen [[mukhya|major]] texts, with a total of 108 texts. The ''{{IAST|[[Bhagavad Gītā]]}}'' is part of the {{IAST|[[Mahabhārata]]}}. The {{IAST|[[Brahma Sutra|Brahma Sūtra]]s}} (also known as the ''{{IAST|Vedānta Sūtras}}''), systematise the doctrines taught in the Upanishads and the ''{{IAST|Gītā}}''.
All major Vedantic teachers, like Shankara, [[Rāmānuja]], and Mādhvāchārya, have composed often extensive commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on the ''Gita''. While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, with its syncretism of [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], and [[Upanishad]]ic thought, the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' has played a strong role in Vedantic thought.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pasricha|first=Ashu|title=Encyclopaedia of Eminent Thinkers: The Political Thought of C. Rajagopalachari, Volume 15|year=2008|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788180694950|pages=95}}</ref>
==History==
Advaita Vedanta existed prior to [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]], but found its most influential expounder in him.<ref>The seven great untenables: Sapta-vidhā anupapatti. By John A Grimes. Introduction, p.7. Motilal Banarsidass 1990</ref> Of the Vedanta-school before the composition of the [[Brahma Sutras]] (400–450 BC{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}) almost nothing is known.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Very little also is known of the period between the Brahma Sutras and Shankara (first half of the 8th century BC).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Only two writings of this period have survived: the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by [[Bhartṛhari]] (second half 5th century{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=426}}), and the ''Māndūkya-kārikā'' written by [[Gaudapada]] (7th century BC).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}
===Earliest Vedanta===
{{See also|Vedas|Upanishads|Darsanas}}
According to Balasubramanian, the Vedantic philosophy is as old as the Vedas, since the basic ideas of the Vedanta systems are derived from the Vedas.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix}} During the Vedic period (1500–600 BC{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix}}) the [[Rishi]]s formulated their religio-philosophical and poetical visions, which are further explored in the [[Upanishads]],{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix–xxx}} the ''jnāna-kānda'' of the Vedas.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxii}} The Upanishads do not contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments."{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx}} This philosophical inquiry was performed by the [[darsanas]], the various philosophical schools.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx–xxxi}}
Deutsch and Dalvi point out that in the Indian context, texts "are only part of a tradition which is preserved in its purest form in the oral transmission as it has been going on."{{sfn|deutsch|2004|p=95}} The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which Vedanta gives an interpretation.{{sfn|Deutsch|2004|p=95-96}}
===Bhedabheda and Bādarāyana's Brahma Sutras===
{{Main|Brahma Sutras}}
The Brahma Sutras of Bādarāyana, also called the ''Vedanta Sutra'',{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxii}}{{refn|group=note|The Vedānta-sūtra are known by a variety of names, including (1) Brahma-sūtra, (2) Śārīraka, (3) Vyāsa-sūtra, (4) Bādarāyaṇa-sūtra, (5) Uttara-mīmāṁsā and (6) Vedānta-darśana.<ref name = SDG>{{Citation | first = S.D. | last = Goswāmi | author-link = Satsvarupa dāsa Goswāmi | title =Readings in Vedic Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself | publisher = [https://books.google.com/books?id=ockZAAAAMAAJ] | year = 1976 | pages = 240 pages | isbn = 0-912776-88-9 }}</ref>}} are traditionally ascribed to Bādarāyana,{{refn|group=note|Estimates of the date of Bādarāyana's lifetime differ between 200 BCE}} and 200 CE.{{sfn|Pandey|2000|p=4}} but "are best understood as a group of sutras composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} They were most likely compiled in the present form around 400–450 CE,{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} but "the great part of the ''Sutra'' must have been in existence much earlier than that."{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}}
The earliest stratum of sutras in the ''Brahmasutras'' is concerned with interpretation of the Upanishads, especially the differences between the ''Chandogya Upanishad'', the ''Brhadanyaka Upanisgad'', and the ''Taittiriya Upanishad''.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} Later additions were concerned with the refutation of rival philosophical schools, especially Samkhya.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' point of view,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "Numerous Indologists, including Surendranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as the most influential school of Vedanta before Sankara."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}}}
Bādarāyana was not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}} He refers to seven Vedantic teachers before him:{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}
{{quote|From the way in which Bādarāyana cites the views of others it is obvious that the teachings of the Upanishads must have been analyzed and interpreted by quite a few before him and that his systematization of them in 555 sutras arranged in four chapters must have been the last attempt, most probably the best.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}}}
The cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26-27}}
===Between Brahma Sutras and Shankara===
According to Nakamura, "there must have been an enormous number of other writings turned out in this period, but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost and have not come down to us today".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his Sampradaya.{{sfn|Roodurmum|2002}} In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.<ref group=web>[http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html advaita-deanta.org, ''Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya'']</ref> Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later schools, which does give insight into the development of early Vedanta philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}
The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the ''Siddhitraya'' by Yamunācārya (c. 1050), the ''Vedārthasamgraha'' by Rāmānuja (c. 1050–1157), and the ''Yatīndramatadīpikā'' by Śrīnivāsa-dāsa.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Combined together,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} at least fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahman Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}{{refn|group=note|Bhartŗhari (c. 450–500), Upavarsa (c. 450–500), Bodhāyana (c. 500), Tanka (Brahmānandin) (c. 500–550), Dravida (c. 550), Bhartŗprapañca (c. 550), Śabarasvāmin (c. 550), Bhartŗmitra (c. 550–600), Śrivatsānka (c. 600), Sundarapāndya (c. 600), Brahmadatta (c. 600–700), Gaudapada (c. 640–690), Govinda (c. 670–720), Mandanamiśra (c. 670–750).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}}}
===Gaudapada and Shankara===
{{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}
Gaudapada wrote or compiled{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}} the {{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}, also known as the {{IAST|Gauḍapāda Kārikā}} and as the {{IAST|Āgama Śāstra}}.{{refn|group=note|Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine between the four chapters.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}}}} Gaudapda took over the Buddhist doctrines that [[Yogacara#Representation-only|ultimate reality is pure consciousness (''vijñapti-mātra'')]]{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines] into a philosophy of the ''Mandukaya Upanisad'', which was further developed by Shankara".{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177-178}}
Adi Shankara (788–820), elaborated on Gaudapada's work, and is considered to be the founder of Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} It was Shankara who succeeded in reading Gaudapada's ''mayavada''{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}{{refn|group=note|name=mayavada|The term "mayavada" is still being used, in a critical way, by the Hare Krshnas. See <ref group=web>[http://gaudiyatouchstone.net/mayavada-and-buddhism-%E2%80%93-are-they-one-and-same Swami B.V. Giri, Gaudya Touchstone, ''Mayavada and Buddhism – Are They One and the Same?'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://www.harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html harekrishnatemple.com, ''Mayavada Philosophy'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://www.harekrsna.com/philosophy/gss/sadhu/sampradayas/mayavada/mayavada.htm harekrsna.com, ''The Mayavada School'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada Gaura Gopala Dasa, ''The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada'']</ref>}} into Badarayana's ''Brahma Sutras'', "and give it a ''locus classicus''",{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}} against the realistic strain of the ''Brahma Sutras''.{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "The ''Brahmasutras'' themselves espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}{{refn|group=note|B.N.K. Sharma: "[H]ow difficult he himself found the task of making the Sutras yield a Monism of his conception, is proved by the artificiality and ''parenthetical irrelevance of his comments'' in many places, where he seeks to go against the spirit and letter of the Sutras and their natural drift of arguments and dialectic [...] he was fighting with all his might and ingenuity against a long line of realistic commentaries."{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}}} His interpretation, including works ascribed to him, has become the normative interpretation of Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004}}{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}
Although Shankara is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedanta school, according to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of these early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} Shankara "was the person who synthesized the ''Advaita-vāda'' which had previously existed before him".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} In this synthesis, he was the rejuvenator and defender of ancient learning.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} He was an unequalled commentator,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} due to whose efforts and contributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant position within Indian philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}}
===Bhakti===
{{Main|Bhakti|Bhakti movement}}
Bhedabheda Vedanta schools played an important role in the rise of ''bhakti'', such as [[Suddhadvaita]], founded by [[Vallabha]]<ref name="Washington" /> (1479–1531 CE), [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]], founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534){{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=248}} and [[Vishishtadvaita]] founded by [[Ramanuja|Shri Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE).
===Integration of various schools===
According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th century,
{{quote|... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}}{{refn|group=note|The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley.{{sfn|Burley|2007|p=34}} Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=24-33}} and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=27}} which started well before 1800.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=26-27}}}}}}
Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}} especially [[Vijnanabhiksu]], a [[Bhedabheda]] Vedantin.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} [[Neo-Vedanta]] too was inspired by these thinkers.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}}
==Vedanta philosophy==
===Basic questions===
The schools of Vedānta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]] and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}
The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between atman and Brahman:{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}}
* According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}}
* According to Dvaita the jīvātman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.
* According to Vishishtadvaita, the jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.
* According to Shuddhadvaita, the jīvātman and Brahman are like sparks and fire, Jagat is real and the jīvātman is clouded by nescience (avidya) due to Maya.
Sivananda gives the following explanation:
{{quote|Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|p=217}}}}
All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'',<ref group=web name="IEPBheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/#H3 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}<ref group=web name="IEPBheda" /> as well as Samkhya,<ref group=web name="IEPBheda" /> support ''[[Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)|Parinamavada]]'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins".{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''[[Vivartavada]]'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman:
{{quote|[A]lthough Brahman seems to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are essentially unreal, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}
===Common features===
Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:{{sfn|Sheridan|1985|p=136}}
* Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthanatrayi]]''—The [[Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.
* Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion. Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards must be renounced.
* Bondage is subjection to [[Saṃsāra]], the cycle of death and rebirth.
* [[Moksha|Liberation]] is deliverance from this cycle.
Traditional Vedānta considers scriptural evidence, or [[Testimony|shabda pramāna]], as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or [[Perception|pratyaksa]], and logical inference, or [[Inference|anumana]], are considered to be subordinate (but valid).{{sfn|Puligandla|1997}}{{sfn|Raju|1992}}
Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes Vedanta irreconcileable with [[Mimamsa]].{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-176}}
==Schools of Vedanta==
{{Subschools of Vedanta|A basic classification of the Vedanta theologies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sheridan |first=Daniel |authorlink= |title=The Advaitic Theism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HqqfxYcw4JIC |accessdate=2012-12-12 |year=1986 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn= |page=139}}</ref>{{sfn|Raju|1992}}{{sfn|Sivananda|1993}}<ref>[http://content.iskcon.org/icj/7_2/72surya.html Gerald Surya, ''Review of "A Critique of A. C. Bhaktivedanta" by K. P. Sinha'']</ref>}}
The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them open to various interpretations. Over a period of time, various schools of Vedanta, with different interpretations of the [[Upanishad]]s and the [[Brahma Sutra]]s arose. There are three,{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}} four,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-200}} five<ref name="Washington" /> or six{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=216}}{{refn|group=note|Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}}} which are prominent:
* [[Bhedabheda]], as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/ Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> or even the 4th century{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}
** Svabhavikabhedabheda or [[Dvaitādvaita]], founded by [[Nimbarka]]<ref name="Washington" /> in the 13th century
** [[Suddhadvaita]], founded by [[Vallabha]]<ref name="Washington" /> (1479–1531 CE)
** [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]], founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534){{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=248}}
* [[Advaita Vedanta]], founded by [[Gaudapada]] and [[Adi Sankara|Shri Adi Shankara]] around 700 CE
* [[Vishishtadvaita]], also a subschool of bhedabheda, founded by [[Ramanuja|Shri Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE)
* [[Dvaita]], founded by [[Shri Madhvacharya]] (1199–1278 CE)
Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although their works are not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers in [[India]].
===Bhedabheda===
[[Bhedabheda]] (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference",<ref name="IEPbheda"/> existed as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda"/> but Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma Sūtra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> According to the Bhedābheda Vedānta schools the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman.<ref name="IEPbheda"/> [[Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Major names of this school are [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th-9th century),<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Rāmānuja’s teacher Yādavaprakāśa,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Nimbārka]] (13th century) who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Vallabha]] (1479–1531)<ref name="IEPbheda" /> who founded [[Shuddhadvaita]],<ref name="Washington">[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03-DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']</ref> [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Caitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" />{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="IEPbheda" />
===Dvaitādvaita===
[[Dvaitādvaita]] was propounded by [[Nimbarka|Nimbārka]] (13th century), based upon [[Bhedabheda|Bhedābheda]], which was taught by [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]]. According to this school, the ''jīvātman'' is at once the same and yet different from Brahman. The jiva relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita from another. In this school, God is visualized as [[Krishna]].<ref name="Vedanta"/>
===Shuddhādvaita===
[[File:Shri mahaprabhuji.jpg|thumb|right|text|Vallabhacharya]]
[[Shuddhadvaita]] was propounded by [[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE). This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to [[Goloka]]' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "[[Pushtimarga]]" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind".<ref name="Vedanta"/>On the basis of quadruple “Proof Corpus” (pramāna catuṣṭaya) comprising [[Sruti|Srutis]] and [[Smriti|Smrutis]], [[Brahmasutra]], [[Gita]] and [[Bhagvatam|Shrimadbhagvata]], Vallabhacharya propounded the philosophy of “[[shuddhadvaita]] brahmvaad” (pure non-dualism), according to which Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankar, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman]] only. Brahman has created the world without connection with or help from any external agency such as Maya, which itself is his power. Brahman manifests Himself through the world. [[Śruti|Srutis]] say Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world (jagat).<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, “Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2)”, Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is how Vallabh’s shuddhadvaita is known as ‘Unmodified transformation’ or ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’, while Shankar’s Advaita or Kevaladvaita is known as ‘[[Vivartavada|Vivartavāda]]’. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a ‘part’. The individual soul ([[Jiva|Jeeva]] or jeevatma) and God are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. The soul is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref>“Brahmavād Saṅgraha”, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref>
===Achintya-Bheda-Abheda===
Founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} (1486–1534). Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} in relation to the power creation and creator, ([[Krishna]]), [[svayam bhagavan]].{{sfn|Kaviraja|year unknown}} and also between God and his energies{{sfn|Prabhupada|1972}} within the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] religious tradition. In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates as 'one-ness'. It can be best understood as integration of strict dualist ([[Dvaita]]) view of [[Madhvacharya]] and qualified monism [[Vishishtadvaita]] of [[Ramanujacharya]] while rejecting absolute monism [[Advaita]] of [[Adi Sankara]].
===Advaita Vedānta===
[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|thumb|right|x216px|Shankaracharya]]
[[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: अद्वैत वेदान्त {{IPA-sa|əd̪ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ɑːnt̪ə|}}) was propounded by [[Adi Shankara]] (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru [[Gaudapada]], who described [[Ajativada]]. It is a<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&pg=PR7 "Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta"] By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm |title=Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Class.uidaho.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyon3IOpX-AC&pg=PA319&lpg=PA319 "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra,"] By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref> sub-school of the [[Vedānta]] (literally, ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', [[Sanskrit]]) school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction,"] By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3</ref> In the school of Vedānta, Brahman is the only reality, and the world, as it appears, is illusory. As Brahman is the sole reality, it cannot be said to possess any attributes whatsoever. An illusory power of Brahman called [[Maya (illusion)|Māyā]] causes the world to arise. Ignorance of this reality is the cause of all suffering in the world and only upon true knowledge of Brahman can liberation be attained. When a person tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to the influence of Māyā, Brahman appears as God ([[Ishvara]]), separate from the world and from the individual. In reality, there is no difference between the individual soul ''jīvātman'' (see [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]) and Brahman. Liberation lies in knowing the reality of this [[non-difference]] (i.e. a-dvaita, "non-duality"). Thus, the path to liberation is finally only through knowledge (''jñāna'').<ref name="Vedanta">[http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Vedanta Vedanta] on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia</ref>
===Vishishtadvaita===
[[Vishishtadvaita]] was propounded by [[Rāmānuja]] (1017–1137 CE) and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of [[Brahman]], and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the [[Brahman]] is asserted to have attributes ([[Saguna brahman]]), including the individual conscious souls and matter. [[Brahman]], matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds [[Bhakti]] or devotion to God visualized as [[Vishnu]] to be the path to liberation. [[Māyā]] is seen as the creative power of God.<ref name="Vedanta"/>{{refn|group=note|[[Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita]] was propounded by Sri [[Srinivasa Deekshitulu]] (950 A.D.). It is primarily related to [[Vaikhanasa]] School of thought (based on Taittiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras. It is strictly followed by the original priests of the celebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day. It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala forms. To meditate on the nishkala aspect of Brahman, the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This school propounds 'Archana' (Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana' (knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to liberation. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman is Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu must be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tirumala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the implementation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.<ref>Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam by Ubhaya Vedanta Pravartaka Srinivasa Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sariraka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri Vikhanas Trust, Tirumala 2004</ref>}}
===Dvaita===
[[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhvacharya|Madhwāchārya]] (1199–1278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his various incarnations like [[Krishna]], [[Narasimha]], [[Venkateswara|Srinivāsa]] etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards [[Brahman]], all individual souls (''jīvātman''s) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates [[Bhakti]] as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively.
Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta"/>
===Neo-Vedanta===
{{Main|Neo-Vedanta|Hindu nationalism|Hindu reform movements}}
Neo-Vedanta is a modern interpretation of Vedanta, with a liberal attitude toward the Vedas.{{sfn|King|2001}} It reconciles dualism and non-dualism,{{sfn|Sooklal|1993}} and rejects the "universal illusionism"{{sfn|Gier|2013|p=268-269}} of Shankara, despite its reference for classical Advaita Vedanta:
{{quote|Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Aurobindo (I also include M.K. Gandhi) have been labeled "neo-Vedantists," a philosophy that rejects the Advaitins' claim that the world is illusory. Aurobindo, in his ''The Life Divine'', declares that he has moved from Sankara's "universal illusionism" to his own "universal realism" (2005: 432), defined as metaphysical realism in the European philosophical sense of the term.{{sfn|Gier|2013|p=268-269}}}}
[[Mohandas Gandhi]] endorsed the Jain concept of [[Anekantavada]],{{sfn|Panicker|2006|p=190-191}} the notion that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth.{{sfn|Dundas|2004|p=123–136}}{{sfn|Koller|2004|p=400–407}} This concept embraces the perspectives of both Vedānta which, according to Jainism, "recognizes [[Substance theory|substances]] but not process", and Buddhism, which "recognizes [[Process philosophy|process]] but not substance". Jainism, on the other hand, pays equal attention to both substance (''dravya'') and process (''paryaya'').{{sfn|Burch|1964|p=68–93}}
Neo-Vedanta developed in the 19th century, in interaction with and response to colonialism.{{sfn|King|2001}} With the onset of the [[British Raj]], the colonialisation of India by the British, there also started a [[Bengali renaissance|Hindu renaissance]] in the 19th century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west.{{sfn|King|2002}} Western [[Orientalism|orientalist]] searched for the "essence" of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas,{{sfn|King|2002|118}} and meanwhile creating the notion of "Hinduism" as a unified body of religious praxis{{sfn|King|1999}} and the popular picture of 'mystical India'.{{sfn|King|1999}}{{sfn|King|2002}}
This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by the Hindu reformers, together with the ideas of [[Universalism in religion|Universalism]] and [[Perennial philosophy|Perennialism]], the idea that all religions share a common [[Mysticism|mystic]] ground.{{sfn|King|2002|p==119-120}} The [[Brahmo Samaj]], who was supported for a while by the [[Unitarianism|Unitarian Church]],{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=114}} played an essential role in the introduction and spread of this new understanding of Hinduism.{{sfn|King|2002|p=123}} Vedanta came to be regarded as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedanta came to be regarded as "then paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion".{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}
A major proponent in the popularisation of this Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta was [[Vivekananda]],{{sfn|King|2002|p=135-142}} who played a major role in the [[Hindu nationalism|revival of Hinduism]],{{sfn|Dense|1999|p=191}} and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via the [[Vedanta Society]], the international arm of [[Ramakrishna Order]]. His interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called "Neo-Vedanta".{{sfn|Mukerji|1983}} The popular understanding of Hinduism has been dominated by this [[neo-Vedanta]],{{sfn|King|1999}}{{refn|group=note|Also called neo-Hinduism{{sfn|King|1999}}}} in which mysticism,{{sfn|King|1999}} Aryan origins and the unity of Hinduism{{sfn|King|1999|p=171}} have been emphasised.{{sfn|Muesse|2011|p=3-4}}{{sfn|Doniger|2010|p=18}}{{sfn|Jouhki|2006|p=10-11}}{{sfn|King|1999}}
These notions also served well for the Hindu nationalists, who further popularised this notion of Advaita Vedanta as the pinnacle of Indian religions.{{sfn|King|2002|p=129-130}} It "provided an opportunity for the construction of a nationalist ideology that could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonial oppression".{{sfn|King|2002|p=133}}
==Influence==
The Vedanta school has had a historic and central influence on Hinduism, states Nakamura:<ref name=hajimenakamura3>Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120819634, page 3</ref>
{{Quote|
The prevalence of Vedanta thought is found not only in philosophical writings but also in various forms of ([[Hindu]]) literature, such as the epics, lyric poetry, drama and so forth. What is especially worthy of attention is that the Hindu religious sects, the common faith of the Indian populace, looked to Vedanta philosophy for the theoretical foundations for their theology. The influence of Vedanta is prominent in the sacred literatures of Hinduism, such as the various Puranas, Samhitas, Agamas and Tantras. Many commentaries on the fundamental scripture of Vedanta, the Brahmasutra, were written by the founders or leading scholars of the various sects of Hinduism, and they are transmitted to this day as documents indispensable in the respective sectarian traditions. The majority of the traditional and conservative scholars in India today, called Pandits, are students of Vedanta, and an overwhelming number belong to the lineage of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] – five-sixths of all Pandits, according to some authorities.
|[[Hajime Nakamura]] (2004)|A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Volume 2<ref name=hajimenakamura3/>}}
[[Frithjof Schuon]] summarizes the influence of Vedanta on Hinduism as, "The Vedanta contained in the Upanishads, then formulated in the ''Brahma Sutra'', and finally commented and explained by Shankara, is an invaluable key for discovering the deepest meaning of all the religious doctrines and for realizing that the ''[[Sanatana Dharma]]'' secretly penetrates all the forms of traditional spirituality.<ref>F Schuon (1975), One of the Great Lights of the World, in ''Spiritual Perspectives, Essays in Mysticism and Metaphysics (Editor: TMP Mahadevan), Arnold Heineman, ISBN , page 91</ref><ref>Klaus Witz (1998), The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120815735, page 11</ref> [[Gavin Flood]] states, "the most influential school of theology in India has been Vedanta, exerting enormous influence on all religious traditions and becoming the central ideology of the Hindu renaissance in the nineteenth century. It has become the philosophical paradigm of Hinduism ''par excellence''."<ref name=gavinfloodaith238>Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, page 238</ref>
[[Lucian Blaga]] has often used the concepts ''Marele Anonim'' (‘the Great Anonymous’) and ''cenzura transcendentă'' (‘the transcendental censorship’) in his philosophy. He was influenced by Śaṅkara’s concepts of ''Brahman'' (‘God’) and ''māyā'' (‘illusion’).<ref> Iţu, Mircia (2007), ''Marele Anonim şi cenzura transcendentă la Blaga. Brahman şi māyā la Śaṅkara (‘The Great Anonymous and the transcendental censorship in Lucian Blaga. Brahman and māyā in Adi Shankara’),'' in ''Caiete critice'' 6-7 (236-237), Bucarest, pages 75-83. {{ISSN|1220-6350}}.</ref> In Śaṅkarācārya, Brahman is understood as ''nirguna Brahman'' (‘God without attributes’), whilst Īśvara is ''saguna Brahman'' (God with attributes). [[Louis Renou]] underlines that Brahman is superior to ''Īśvara'', while [[Olivier Lacombe]] writes that Brahman is Īśvara’s superlative.<ref>Lacombe, Olivier (1979), ''Indianité. Etudes historiques et comparatives sur la pensée indienne'', Paris: Les Belles Lettres.</ref> Brahman is different than Greek Zeus, as well as than Christian or Jewish God, than Muslim Allah, because he is transpersonal.<ref> Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Filosofia şi religiile Indiei (‘Indian Philosophy and Indian Religions’)'', Braşov: Orientul latin, page. 69 ISBN 973-9338-70-4</ref> Māyā is a fundamental concept in Vedanta. It has several meanings and it has often been translated as ‘illusion’. According to L. Thomas O’Neil, māyā signifies ‘measuring the immeasurable’.<ref>O’Neil, Thomas L. (1980), ''Māyā in Śaṅkara. Measuring the Immeasurable'', New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, page 140.</ref>
==Comparison to Western philosophies==
Similarities between Vedanta and Western philosophical traditions have been discussed by many authorities. Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world, since the late 18th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity.{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} In 1785 appeared the first western translation of a Sanskrit-text.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=176}} It marked the growing interest in the Indian culture and languages.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=177}} The first translation of Upanishads appeared in two parts in 1801 and 1802,{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=177}} which influenced [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], who called them "the consolation of my life".{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=178}}{{refn|group=note|And called his poodle "Atman".{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=178}}}} Schopenhauer drew explicit parallels between his philosophy, as set out in 'The World as Will and Representation',<ref>Schopenhauer, Arthur. ''The World as Will and Representation''. Translated from the German by EFJ Payne. Dover Publications, vol. 1, chap. 1</ref> and that of the Vedanta philosophy ascribed to Vasya in the work of Sir William Jones.<ref>Jones, Sir William. ''On the Philosophy of the Asiatics''. Sir William Jones. Asiatic Researches, vol. 4, p. 164</ref> Early translations also appeared in other European languages.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=183-184}}
In the 20th century, comparisons between Advaita, western philosophy, and science took a high flight. [[Brian David Josephson]], Welsh physicist, and Nobel Prize laureate says:<ref>[http://www.truedharma.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4:synthesis-of-science-and-spirituality&catid=3:awaken&Itemid=2 "Synthesis of Science and Spirituality"]</ref>
{{quote|The Vedanta and the Sankhya hold the key to the laws of the mind and thought process which are co-related to the Quantum Field, i.e. the operation and distribution of particles at atomic and molecular levels.}}
===Spinoza===
[[Max Müller]], in his lectures, noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], saying
{{quote|[T]he Brahman, as conceived in the Upanishads and defined by Sankara, is clearly the same as Spinoza's 'Substantia'."<ref>Three Lectures on the Vedanta Philosophy. F. Max Muller. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p123</ref>}}
[[Helena Blavatsky]], a founder of the [[Theosophical Society]], also compared Spinoza's religious thought to Vedanta, writing in an unfinished essay
{{quote|As to Spinoza’s Deity—natura naturans—conceived in his attributes simply and alone; and the same Deity—as natura naturata or as conceived in the endless series of modifications or correlations, the direct outflowing results from the properties of these attributes, it is the Vedantic Deity pure and simple.<ref>H.P Blavatsky's Collected Writings, Volume 13, pages 308-310. Quest Books</ref>}}
The 19th-century German Sanskritist [[Theodore Goldstücker]] was one of the early figures to notice the similarities between the religious conceptions of the Vedanta and those of the Dutch Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza, writing that Spinoza's thought was
{{quote|... so exact a representation of the ideas of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected its founder to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus, did his biography not satisfy us that he was wholly unacquainted with their doctrines [...] comparing the fundamental ideas of both we should have no difficulty in proving that, had Spinoza been a Hindu, his system would in all probability mark a last phase of the Vedanta philosophy.<ref>Literary Remains of the Late Professor Theodore Goldstucker, W. H. Allen, 1879. p32.</ref><ref>The Westminster Review, Volumes 78-79, Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1862. p1862</ref>}}
==See also==
*[[Monistic idealism]]
*[[List of teachers of Vedanta]]
*[[Self-consciousness (Vedanta)]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|2}}
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
==Sources==
===Published sources===
{{columns-list|2|
{{refbegin}}
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* {{Citation | last =Burch | first =George Bosworth | year =1964 | title =Seven-Valued Logic in Jain Philosophy | journal =International Philosophical Quarterly | volume =IV | issue =1 | pages =68–93 | location =Bronx, NY | url =http://secure.pdcnet.org/ipq | issn =0019-0365 }}
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* {{Citation | last =Nakamura | first =Hajime | year =1990 | title =A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part One | place =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited}}
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* {{Citation | last =Prabhupada | first =A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami | year =1972 | title =Bhagavad-gita as it is | publisher =Bhaktivedanta Book Trust Los Angeles, California}}
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* {{Citation | last =Roodurmum | first =Pulasth Soobah | year =2002 | title =Bhāmatī and Vivaraṇa Schools of Advaita Vedānta: A Critical Approach | place =Delhi | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited}}
* {{Citation | last =Sharma | first =B. N. Krishnamurti | year =2000 | title =History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature: From the Earliest Beginnings to Our Own Times | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=FVtpFMPMulcC&printsec=frontcover&hl=nl#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
* {{Citation | last =Sivananda | first =Swami | year =1993 | title =All About Hinduism | publisher =The Divine Life Society | url =http://www.dlshq.org/download/hinduismbk.htm}}
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{{refend}}
}}
===Web-sources===
{{reflist|group=web|2}}
==Further reading==
{{Wikiquote}}
* ''[http://www.vedantaworld.org Vedanta Treatise: The Eternities]'' by [[Swami Parthasarathy]]
* ''The System of Vedanta'' by [[Paul Deussen]]. 1912. Reprint 2007.
* ''Forgotten Truth: The Primordial Tradition'' by [[Huston Smith]]
* ''Theology After Vedanta'' by [[Francis X. Clooney]]
* ''A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy'' by [[Hajime Nakamura]]
* ''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies'' and "Vedanta Sutras of Nārāyana Guru" by [[Karl Harrington Potter|Karl Potter]] and Sibajiban Bhattachārya
* ''[http://www.sriaurobindoashram.info/Contents.aspx?ParentCategoryName=_StaticContent/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-Library/-01%20Works%20of%20Sri%20Aurobindo/-12_The%20Upanishad_Volume-12 The Upanishads]'' by [[Sri Aurobindo]], [[Sri Aurobindo Ashram]], [[Pondicherry (city)|Pondicherry]], 1972.
* ''Choice Upanishads'' by [[Swami Parthasarathy]]
* ''[http://www.vedanta.com Vedanta: A Simple Introduction]'' by [[Pravrajika Vrajaprana]]
* ''[http://www.brahmavidya.org Swami Bhoomānanda Tirtha]'' [[Narayanashrama Tapovanam]]
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