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Purusha (Sanskrit  पुरुषः) is a complex concept whose meaning evolved in Vedic and Upanishadic times. Depending on source and historical timeline, it means the cosmic man or Self, Consciousness, and Universal principle.[1][2][3]

Purusha (Sanskrit  पुरुषः) is a complex concept whose meaning evolved in [[Vedic]] and Upanishadic times. Depending on source and historical timeline, it means the cosmic man or Self, Consciousness, and Universal principle.'''[1][2][3]'''

'''In early Vedas, Purusa meant a cosmic man whose sacrifice by the gods created all life.[4] This was one of many creation theories discussed in the Vedas. The idea parallels Norse Ymir,[5] with the myth's origin in'''  

'''In early Vedas, Purusa meant a cosmic man whose sacrifice by the gods created all life.[4] This was one of many creation theories discussed in the Vedas. The idea parallels Norse Ymir,[5] with the myth's origin in'''  

In the Upanishads, the Purusa concept no longer meant a being or cosmic man. The meaning evolved to an abstract essence of Self, Spirit and the Universal Principle that is eternal, indestructible, without form and all pervasive.[4] The Purusa concept is explained with the concept of [[प्रकृति|Prakrti]] in the Upanishads. The universe is envisioned, in these ancient Sanskrit texts, as a combination of perceivable material reality and non-perceivable, non-material laws and principles of nature.[3][7] Material reality, or Prakrti, is everything that has changed, can change and is subject to cause and effect. Purusa is the Universal principle that is unchanging, uncaused but is present everywhere and the reason why Prakrti changes, evolves all the time and why there is cause and effect.[7] Purusa is what connects everything and everyone, according to various schools of Hinduism.

In the Upanishads, the Purusa concept no longer meant a being or cosmic man. The meaning evolved to an abstract essence of Self, Spirit and the Universal Principle that is eternal, indestructible, without form and all pervasive'''.[4]''' The Purusa concept is explained with the concept of [[प्रकृति|Prakrti]] in the Upanishads. The universe is envisioned, in these ancient Sanskrit texts, as a combination of perceivable material reality and non-perceivable, non-material laws and principles of nature.'''[3][7]''' Material reality, or Prakrti, is everything that has changed, can change and is subject to cause and effect. Purusa is the Universal principle that is unchanging, uncaused but is present everywhere and the reason why Prakrti changes, evolves all the time and why there is cause and effect'''.[7]''' Purusa is what connects everything and everyone, according to various schools of Hinduism.

There is a diversity of views within various schools of Hinduism about the definition, scope and nature of Purusa.[2]

There is a diversity of views within various schools of Hinduism about the definition, scope and nature of Purusa'''.[2]'''

 

 

Purusha is a complex concept, <nowiki>'''</nowiki>whose meaning evolved over time in the philosophical traditions now called as Hinduism.<nowiki>'''</nowiki> During the Vedic period, Purusa concept was one of several theories offered for the creation of universe.[a] Purusa, in Rigveda, was described as a being, who becomes a sacrificial victim of gods, and whose sacrifice creates all life forms including human beings.[4]

 

Splendid and without a bodily form is this Purusa, without and within, unborn, without life breath and without mind, higher than the supreme element. From him are born life breath and mind. He is the soul of all beings.

Splendid and without a bodily form is this Purusa, without and within, unborn, without life breath and without mind, higher than the supreme element. From him are born life breath and mind. He is the soul of all beings.

— Munduka Upanishad, (Translated by Klaus Klostermair)[9]

— Munduka Upanishad, (Translated by Klaus Klostermair)['''9]'''

Both Samkhya[b] and Yoga schools of Hinduism state that there are two ultimate realities whose interaction accounts for all experiences and universe - Prakrti (matter) and Purusa (spirit).[3][10] In other words, the universe is envisioned as a combination of perceivable material reality and non-perceivable, non-material laws and principles of nature. Material reality, or Prakrti, is everything that has changed, can change and is subject to cause and effect. Universal principle, or Purusa, is that which is unchanging (aksara)[2] and is uncaused. The animating causes, fields and principles of nature is Purusa in Hindu philosophy. Hinduism refers to Purusa as the soul of the universe, the universal spirit present everywhere, in everything and everyone, all the times. Purusa is Universal Principle that is eternal, indestructible, without form and all pervasive. It is Purusa in the form of nature’s laws and principles that operate in the background to regulate, guide and direct change, evolution, cause and effect.[3] It is Purusa, in Hindu concept of existence, that breathes life into matter, is the source of all consciousness,[2] one that creates oneness in all life forms, in all of humanity, and the essence of Self. It is Purusa, according to Hinduism, why the universe operates, is dynamic and evolves, as against being static.[7]

Both Samkhya[b] and Yoga schools of Hinduism state that there are two ultimate realities whose interaction accounts for all experiences and universe - Prakrti (matter) and Purusa (spirit).['''3][10'''] In other words, the universe is envisioned as a combination of perceivable material reality and non-perceivable, non-material laws and principles of nature. Material reality, or Prakrti, is everything that has changed, can change and is subject to cause and effect. Universal principle, or Purusa, is that which is unchanging (aksara)['''2'''] and is uncaused. The animating causes, fields and principles of nature is Purusa in Hindu philosophy. Hinduism refers to Purusa as the soul of the universe, the universal spirit present everywhere, in everything and everyone, all the times. Purusa is Universal Principle that is eternal, indestructible, without form and all pervasive. It is Purusa in the form of nature’s laws and principles that operate in the background to regulate, guide and direct change, evolution, cause and effect.['''3'''] It is Purusa, in Hindu concept of existence, that breathes life into matter, is the source of all consciousness,['''2'''] one that creates oneness in all life forms, in all of humanity, and the essence of Self. It is Purusa, according to Hinduism, why the universe operates, is dynamic and evolves, as against being static.['''7''']

Both Samkhya and Yoga school holds that the path to moksha (release, Self-realization) includes the realization of Purusha.[11]

Both Samkhya and Yoga school holds that the path to moksha (release, Self-realization) includes the realization of Purusha.['''11''']

 

'''Related concepts and diversity of views'''

The abstract idea Purusa is extensively discussed in various Upanishads, and referred interchangeably as maha-atman and brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin).[2]  

The abstract idea Purusa is extensively discussed in various Upanishads, and referred interchangeably as maha-atman and brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin).[2]  

the Antaratman (the Inner-Atman) which comprehends the whole range of material phenomena, gross and subtle, with which the Jiva concerns himself  

the Antaratman (the Inner-Atman) which comprehends the whole range of material phenomena, gross and subtle, with which the Jiva concerns himself  

the Paramatman which is all-pervading, unthinkable, indescribable, is without action and has no Samskaras.[12]

the Paramatman which is all-pervading, unthinkable, indescribable, is without action and has no Samskaras'''.[12]'''

'''The Vedanta Sutras state  meaning that 'The Absolute Truth is that from which everything else emanates' Bhagavata Purana [S.1.1.1].[citation needed]'''

'''The Vedanta Sutras state  meaning that 'The Absolute Truth is that from which everything else emanates' Bhagavata Purana [S.1.1.1].[citation needed]'''

'''Theistic schools of Hinduism'''

== Theistic schools of Hinduism ==

 

There is no consensus among schools of Hinduism on the definition of Purusa, and it is left to each school and individual to reach their own conclusions. For example, one of many theistic traditions script such as Kapilasurisamvada, credited to another ancient Hindu philosopher named Kapila, first describes purusa in a manner similar to Samkhya-Yoga schools above, but then proceeds to describe buddhi (intellect) as second purusa, and ahamkara (ego) as third purusa. Such pluralism and diversity of thought within Hinduism '''[13]''' implies that the term purusa is a complex term with diverse meanings.

There is no consensus among schools of Hinduism on the definition of Purusa, and it is left to each school and individual to reach their own conclusions. For example, one of many theistic traditions script such as Kapilasurisamvada, credited to another ancient Hindu philosopher named Kapila, first describes purusa in a manner similar to Samkhya-Yoga schools above, but then proceeds to describe buddhi (intellect) as second purusa, and ahamkara (ego) as third purusa. Such pluralism and diversity of thought within Hinduism [13] implies that the term purusa is a complex term with diverse meanings.

 

 

 

That remarkable hymn (the Purusha Sukta) is in language, metre, and style, very different from the rest of the prayers with which it is associated. It has a decidedly more modern tone, and must have been composed after the Sanskrit language had been refined.

That remarkable hymn (the Purusha Sukta) is in language, metre, and style, very different from the rest of the prayers with which it is associated. It has a decidedly more modern tone, and must have been composed after the Sanskrit language had been refined.

— Henry Thomas Colebrooke, [17]

— Henry Thomas Colebrooke, '''[17]'''

There can be little doubt, for instance, that the 90th hymn of the 10th book (Purusha Sukta) is modern both in its character and in its diction. (...) It mentions the three seasons in the order of the Vasanta, spring; Grishma, summer; and Sarad, autumn; it contains the only passage in the Rigveda where the four castes are enumerated. The evidence of language for the modern date of this composition is equally strong. Grishma, for instance, the name for the hot season, does not occur in any other hymn of the Rigveda; and Vasanta also does not belong to the earliest vocabulary of the Vedic poets.

There can be little doubt, for instance, that the 90th hymn of the 10th book (Purusha Sukta) is modern both in its character and in its diction. (...) It mentions the three seasons in the order of the Vasanta, spring; Grishma, summer; and Sarad, autumn; it contains the only passage in the Rigveda where the four castes are enumerated. The evidence of language for the modern date of this composition is equally strong. Grishma, for instance, the name for the hot season, does not occur in any other hymn of the Rigveda; and Vasanta also does not belong to the earliest vocabulary of the Vedic poets.

— Max Müller, [18]

— Max Müller, '''[18]'''

<nowiki>''''''The Purusha Sukta is a later interpolation in the Rig Veda. ('''...) Verses in the form of questions about the division of Purusha and the origins of the Varnas are a fraudulent emendation of the original.'''</nowiki>

'The Purusha Sukta is a later interpolation in the Rig Veda. ('...) Verses in the form of questions about the division of Purusha and the origins of the Varnas are a fraudulent emendation of the original.'

— Babasaheb Ambedkar, [19]

— Babasaheb Ambedkar, '''[19]'''

An example of alternate theory is Nasadiya Sukta, the last book of the Vedas, which suggests a great heat created universe from void.  

An example of alternate theory is Nasadiya Sukta, the last book of the Vedas, which suggests a great heat created universe from void.  

== References ==

== References ==

Purusha Encyclopedia Britannica (2013)

# Purusha Encyclopedia Britannica (2013)

 

# Angelika Malinar, Hindu Cosmologies, in Jessica Frazier (Editor) - A Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0</nowiki>, pp 67

<nowiki>:</nowiki> a b c d e Angelika Malinar, Hindu Cosmologies, in Jessica Frazier (Editor) - A Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0</nowiki>, pp 67

# Karl Potter, Presuppositions of India’s Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, <nowiki>ISBN 81-208-0779-0</nowiki>, pp 105-109

 

# Klaus K. Klostermair (2007), A survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, State University of New York Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-7914-7081-7</nowiki>, pp 87

<nowiki>:</nowiki> a b c d Karl Potter, Presuppositions of India’s Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, <nowiki>ISBN 81-208-0779-0</nowiki>, pp 105-109

# Encyclopædia Britannica. Edition: 11 V. 19 - 1911 page 143

 

# Patrice Lajoye, "Puruṣa", Nouvelle Mythologie Comparée / New Comparative Mythologie, 1, 2013: <nowiki>http://nouvellemythologiecomparee.hautetfort.com/archive/2013/02/03/patrice-lajoye-purusha.html</nowiki>

<nowiki>:</nowiki> a b c Klaus K. Klostermair (2007), A survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, State University of New York Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-7914-7081-7</nowiki>, pp 87

# Theos Bernard (1947), The Hindu Philosophy, The Philosophical Library, New York, pp 69-72

 

# Klaus K. Klostermair (2007), A survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, State University of New York Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-7914-7081-7</nowiki>, pp 167-169

Encyclopædia Britannica. Edition: 11 V. 19 - 1911 page 143

# Klaus K. Klostermair (2007), A survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, State University of New York Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-7914-7081-7</nowiki>, pp 170-171

 

# Jessica Frazier, A Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0</nowiki>, pp 24-25, 78

Patrice Lajoye, "Puruṣa", Nouvelle Mythologie Comparée / New Comparative Mythologie, 1, 2013: <nowiki>http://nouvellemythologiecomparee.hautetfort.com/archive/2013/02/03/patrice-lajoye-purusha.html</nowiki>

# Angelika Malinar, Hindu Cosmologies, in Jessica Frazier (Editor) - A Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0</nowiki>, pp 78-79

 

# Swami Madhavananda. Minor Upanishads. Advaita Ashrama. p. 11.

<nowiki>:</nowiki> a b c Theos Bernard (1947), The Hindu Philosophy, The Philosophical Library, New York, pp 69-72

# Angelika Malinar, Hindu Cosmologies, in Jessica Frazier (Editor) - A Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0</nowiki>, pp 80

 

# David Keane (2007), Caste-based Discrimination in International Human Rights Law, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0754671725</nowiki>, pp 26-27

Klaus K. Klostermair (2007), A survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, State University of New York Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-7914-7081-7</nowiki>, pp 167-169

# Raghwan (2009), Discovering the Rigveda A Bracing text for our Times, <nowiki>ISBN 978-8178357782</nowiki>, pp 77-88

 

# Rigveda 10/81 & Yajurveda 17/19/20, 25

Klaus K. Klostermair (2007), A survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, State University of New York Press, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-7914-7081-7</nowiki>, pp 170-171

# Colebrooke, Miscallaneous Essays Volume 1, WH Allen & Co, London, see footnote at page 309

 

# Müller (1859), A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, Williams & Norgate, London, pp 570-571

Jessica Frazier, A Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0</nowiki>, pp 24-25, 78

# N. Jabbar (2011), Historiography and Writing Postcolonial India, Routledge, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0415672269</nowiki>, pp 149-150

 

Angelika Malinar, Hindu Cosmologies, in Jessica Frazier (Editor) - A Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0</nowiki>, pp 78-79

 

Swami Madhavananda. Minor Upanishads. Advaita Ashrama. p. 11.

 

Angelika Malinar, Hindu Cosmologies, in Jessica Frazier (Editor) - A Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0</nowiki>, pp 80

 

David Keane (2007), Caste-based Discrimination in International Human Rights Law, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0754671725</nowiki>, pp 26-27

 

Raghwan (2009), Discovering the Rigveda A Bracing text for our Times, <nowiki>ISBN 978-8178357782</nowiki>, pp 77-88

 

Rigveda 10/81 & Yajurveda 17/19/20, 25

 

Colebrooke, Miscallaneous Essays Volume 1, WH Allen & Co, London, see footnote at page 309

 

Müller (1859), A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, Williams & Norgate, London, pp 570-571

 

N. Jabbar (2011), Historiography and Writing Postcolonial India, Routledge, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0415672269</nowiki>, pp 149-150