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{{About|the Hindu theological texts|similar words|Brahman (disambiguation)}}
{{Hindu scriptures}}
The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads.<ref name=":0">A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0595384556</nowiki>, pages 8-14</ref> The Samhitas are sometimes identified as ''karma-kanda'' (कर्म खण्ड, action/ritual-related section), while the Upanishads are identified as''jnana-kanda'' (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related section).<ref name=":0" /> The Aranyakas and Brahmanas are variously classified, sometimes as the ceremonial ''karma-kanda'', other times (or parts of them) as the ''jnana-kanda''.
Another opinion states: "The ''Samhitas'' and the ''Brahmanas'' form the ''Karma''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They are apparently concerned with the ceremonial rites and rituals. The ''Aranyakas'' and the Upanishads form the ''Gyan''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy and spiritualism.<ref><nowiki>http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm</nowiki>, 6th Paragraph</ref>
Dr. Radhakrishnan puts it like this. “While the hymns or Samhitas are the creation of the poets, the Brahmanas are the work of the priests; the Upanishads are the meditations of the philosophers. The flow of thought from the Samhitas to Brahmanas to Aranyakas to Upanishads is the indication of the process of evolution of Hindu religion over the centuries”
Another learned author says: These are four different modes of expressing the same truths, each as a cross check against others so that misrepresentations are avoided, a method used and valid even today.<ref>Insights Into the Taittiriya Upanishad, Dr. K. S. Narayanacharya, Published by Kautilya Institute of National Studies, Mysore, Page 75 (Glossary)</ref>
The '''Brahmanas''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|r|ɑː|m|ə|n|ə}}; [[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|ब्राह्मणम्}}, ''Brāhmaṇa'') are a collection of ancient Indian texts with commentaries on the hymns of the four [[Vedas]]. They are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases philosophy.<ref name=ebri/><ref name=klkl>[[Klaus Klostermaier]] (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791421093, pages 67-69</ref> They are attached to each Veda, and form a part of the [[Hindu texts|Hindu]] ''[[śruti]]'' literature.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/brahmana "Brahmana"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''</ref>
The ''Brahmanas'' are particularly noted for their instructions on the proper performance of rituals, as well as explain the original symbolic meanings- translated to words and ritual actions in the main text.<ref name=ebri>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana Brahmana] Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref> ''Brahmanas'' lack a homogeneous structure across the different Vedas, with some containing chapters that constitute [[Aranyaka]]s or [[Upanishad]]s in their own right.<ref name=winter3/>
Each Vedic ''[[shakha]]'' (school) has its own ''Brahmana''. Numerous ''Brahmana'' texts existed in ancient India, many of which have been lost.<ref name=winter>Moriz Winternitz (2010), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 175-176</ref> A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant at least in their entirety.
The dating of the final codification of the ''Brahmanas'' and associated Vedic texts is controversial, which occurred after centuries of verbal transmission.<ref>Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, page 47</ref> The oldest is dated to about 900 [[BCE]], while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]]), were complete by about 700 BCE.<ref name=ebri/><ref name=mw>[[Michael Witzel]], "Tracing the Vedic dialects" in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes'' ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.</ref><ref name=bcp>Biswas et al (1989), Cosmic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521343541, pages 42-43</ref> According to [[Jan Gonda]], the final codification of the four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and early Upanishads took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).<ref name=kklo/>
==Discussion==
The ''Brahmanas'' are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the exposition of rituals in the Vedas and in some cases philosophy.<ref name=ebri/><ref name=klkl/> For example, the first chapter of the Chandogya Brahmana, one of the oldest Brahmanas, includes eight ''suktas'' (hymns) for the ceremony of marriage and rituals at the birth of a child.<ref name=maxmullercb/><ref name=pauldeussencb>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, page 63</ref> The first hymn is a recitation that accompanies offering a [[Yajna]] oblation to deity [[Agni]] (fire) on the occasion of a marriage, and the hymn prays for prosperity of the couple getting married.<ref name=pauldeussencb/> The second hymn wishes for their long life, kind relatives, and a numerous progeny.<ref name=maxmullercb/> The third hymn is a mutual marriage pledge, between the bride and groom, by which the two bind themselves to each other, as follows (excerpt),
{{Quote|
<poem>
यदेतद्धृदयं तव तदस्तु हृदयं मम <nowiki>।
यदिदं हृदयं मम तदस्तु हृदयं तव ॥</nowiki>
That heart of thine shall be mine,
and this heart of mine shall be thine.
</poem>
|Chāndogya Brāhmaṇa, Chaper 1, Translated by [[Max Muller]]<ref name=maxmullercb>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVII with footnote 2</ref><ref>{{Google books|sqqgAAAAMAAJ|The Development of the Female Mind in India|page=27}}, The Calcutta Review, Volume 60, page 27</ref>}}
The next two hymns of the first chapter of the Chandogya Brahmana invoke deities ''Agni'', ''Vayu'', ''Kandramas'', and ''Surya'' to bless the couple and ensure healthful progeny.<ref name=maxmullercb/> The sixth through last hymn of the first chapter in Chandogya Brahmana are not marriage-related, but related to hymns that go with ritual celebrations on the birth of a child, and wishes for health, wealth and prosperity with a profusion of milch-cows and [[artha]].<ref name=maxmullercb/>
The Brahmanas are particularly noted for their instructions on the proper performance of rituals, as well as explain the symbolic importance of sacred words and ritual actions in the main text.<ref name="ebri"/> These instructions insist on exact pronunciation (accent),<ref>The pronunciation challenge arises from the change in meaning, in some cases, if something is pronounced incorrectly; for example hrA, hrada, hradA, hradya, hrag, hrAm and hrAsa, each has different meanings; see Harvey P. Alper (2012), Understanding Mantras, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120807464, pages 104-105</ref> ''[[Vedic meter|chhandas]]'' (छन्दः, meters), precise pitch, with coordinated movement of hand and fingers – that is, perfect delivery.<ref name=klkl/><ref>[[Max Muller]], {{Google books|qdQXYYp9e50C|A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature}}, page 147</ref> Satapatha Brahamana, for example, states that verbal perfection made a mantra infallible, while one mistake made it powerless.<ref name=klkl/> Scholars suggest that this [[Orthology (language)|orthological]] perfection preserved Vedas in an age when writing technology was not in vogue, and the voluminous collection of Vedic knowledge were taught to and memorized by dedicated students through [[Svādhyāya#Svadhyaya as a historical practice|Svādhyāya]], then remembered and verbally transmitted from one generation to the next.<ref name=klkl/><ref>[[Gavin Flood]] (Ed) (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., ISBN 1-4051-3251-5, pages 67-69</ref>
Each Vedic ''[[shakha]]'' (school) has its own Brahmana, many of which have been lost.<ref name=winter/> A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant at least in their entirety: two associated with the [[Rigveda]], six with the [[Yajurveda]], ten with the [[Samaveda]] and one with the [[Atharvaveda]]. Additionally, there are a handful of fragmentarily preserved texts. They vary greatly in length; the edition of the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] fills five volumes of the [[Sacred Books of the East]]. The Brahmanas were seminal in the development of later Indian thought and scholarship, including [[Hindu philosophy]], predecessors of [[Vedanta]], law, astronomy, geometry, linguistics ([[Pāṇini]]), the concept of [[Karma]], or the stages in life such as [[brahmacarya]], [[grihastha]], [[vanaprastha]] and eventually, [[sannyasa]]. Brahmanas also lack a homogeneous structure across the different Vedas, with some containing sections that are [[Aranyaka]]s or [[Upanishad]]s in their own right.
The language of the Brahmanas is a separate stage of [[Vedic Sanskrit]], younger than the text of the samhitas (the ''[[mantra]]'' texts of the Vedas proper), ca.1000BCE, but for the most part are older than the text of the [[Sutra]]s. The dating of the Brahmanas is controversial, with oldest being dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the Shatapatha Brahmana), were complete by about 700 BCE.<ref name=ebri/><ref name=mw/><ref name=bcp/>
According to [[Jan Gonda]], the final codification of the four Vedas, Brahmanas, [[Aranyakas]] and early Upanishads took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).<ref name=kklo>Klaus Klostermaier (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791421093, page 67</ref> Erdosy suggests that the later Brahmanas were composed during a period of urbanisation and considerable social change.<ref>Erdosy, George, ed, ''The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity'', New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1995</ref> This period also saw significant developments in mathematics, geometry, biology and grammar.<ref>Doniger, Wendy, ''The Hindus, An Alternative History'', Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-959334-7, pbk</ref>
==List of Brahmanas==
Each Brahmana is associated with one of the four Vedas, and within the tradition of that Veda with a particular [[shakha]] or school:
===[[Rigveda]]===
* Shakala shakha
** [[Aitareya Brahmana]], rarely also known as Ashvalayana Brahmana (AB).<ref>Theodor Aufrecht, ''Das Aitareya Braahmana. Mit Auszügen aus dem Commentare von Sayanacarya und anderen Beilagen'', Bonn 1879; [http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/ind/aind/ved/rv/ab/ab.htm TITUS etext]</ref> It consists of 40 ''adhyayas'' (lessons, chapters), dealing with Soma sacrifice, and in particular the fire sacrifice ritual.<ref name=winter2>Moriz Winternitz (2010), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 176-178</ref> Parts of the Aitareya Brahmana reads like an ''[[Aranyaka]]''.<ref>[[Paul Deussen]], {{Google books|B0QzAQAAMAAJ|The Philosophy of the Upanishads}}, pages 4-6</ref>
* Bashkala or Iksvakus shakha (unclear)<ref>[[Michael Witzel]], [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf The Vedic Canon and its Political Milieu], Harvard University Press, pages 320-321</ref><ref name=keith22>KB Keith, [https://archive.org/stream/rigvedabrahmana00keitgoog#page/n39/mode/2up Rigveda Brahmanas], Harvard Oriental Series, pages 22-45</ref>
** [[Kaushitaki Brahmana]] (also called {{IAST|Śāṅkhāyana}} Brahmana) (KB, ŚānkhB).<ref>ed. E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma, Wiesbaden 1968.</ref> It consistes of 30 chapters, the first six of which are dedicated to food sacrifice, and the remaining to Soma sacrifice in a manner matching the Aitareya Brahmana.<ref name=winter2/>
Keith has published his translation of Aitereya Brahmana,<ref>KB Keith, [https://archive.org/stream/rigvedabrahmana00keitgoog#page/n121/mode/2up Rigveda Brahmanas: Aitereya], Harvard Oriental Series, pages 105-344</ref> and the Kaushitaki Brahmana.<ref>KB Keith, [https://archive.org/stream/rigvedabrahmana00keitgoog#page/n361/mode/2up Rigveda Brahmanas: Kaushitaki], Harvard Oriental Series, pages 345-540</ref>
===[[Samaveda]]===
* Kauthuma and Ranayaniya shakhas
** [[Panchavimsha Brahmana|Tandya Mahabrahmana]] or Panchavimsha Brahmana ({{IAST|Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa}}) (PB) is the principal Brahmana of both the Kauthuma and Ranayaniya shakhas. This is one of the oldest Brahmanas and includes twenty five books. It is notable for its important ancient legends and ''Vratyastomas''.<ref name=winter2/>
** [[Sadvimsha Brahmana]] ({{IAST|Ṣaḍviṃṡa Brāhmaṇa}}) ({{IAST|ṢadvB}}) is considered as an appendix to the Panchavimsha Brahmana and its twenty-sixth ''prapathaka''.<ref name=winter2/>
** Samavidhana Brahmana, and the following Samaveda "Brahmanas" are in Sutra style; it comprises 3 prapathakas.
** Arsheya Brahmana is an index to the hymns of Samaveda.
** Devatadhyaya or Daivata Brahmana comprises 3 khandas, having 26, 11 and 25 kandikas respectively.
** Chandogya Brahmana is divided into ten ''prapathaka''s (chapters). Its first two ''prapathaka''s (chapters) form the Mantra Brahmana (MB) and each of them is divided into eight ''khanda''s (sections). Prapathakas 3–10 form the [[Chandogya Upanishad]].
** Samhitopanishad Brahmana has a single ''prapathaka'' (chapter) divided into five ''khanda''s (sections).
** Vamsa Brahmana consists of one short chapter, detailing successions of teachers and disciples.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dharmicscriptures.org/Vedic_SB_Intro.doc|title=Vedic Samhitas and Brahmanas – A popular, brief introduction}}</ref>
* Jaiminiya shakha
** Jaiminiya Brahmana (JB) is the principal Brahmana of the Jaiminiya shakha, divided into three ''kanda''s (sections). One of the oldest Brahmanas, older than Tandya Mahabrahmana, but only fragments of manuscript have survived.<ref name=winter3>[[Moriz Winternitz]] (2010), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 178-180</ref>
** Jaiminiya Arsheya Brahmana is also an index to the hymns of Samaveda, belonging to the Jaiminiya shakha.
** [[Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana]] (JUB) also known as Talavakara Upanishad Brahmana, is to some extent parallel to the Chandogya Upanisad, but older.
===[[Yajurveda]]===
====[[Krishna Yajurveda]]====
* In the Krishna Yajurveda, Brahmana style texts are integrated in the Samhitas; they are older than the Brahmanas proper.
** Maitrayani Samhita (MS) and an Aranyaka (= accented [[Maitrayaniya Upanishad]])
** (Caraka) Katha Samhita (KS); the Katha school has an additional fragmentary Brahmana (KathB) and Aranyaka (KathA)
** Kapisthalakatha Samhita (KpS), and a few small fragments of its Brahmana
** Taittiriya Samhita (TS). In addition to the Brahmana style portions of the Samhita,the Taittiriya school has an additional [[Taittiriya Brahmana]] (TB) and Aranyaka (TA) as well as the late Vedic Vadhula Anvakhyana (Br.).{{citation needed|date=January 2015}} It includes a description of symbolic sacrifices, where meditation substitutes an actual sacrifice.<ref name=winter3/>
====[[Shukla Yajurveda]]====
* Madhyandina Shakha
** [[Shatapatha Brahmana]], Madhyandina recension (SBM)
* Kanva Shakha
** Shatapatha Brahmana, Kanva recension (SBK)
:The Satapatha Brahmana consists of a hundred ''adhyayas'' (chapters), and is the most cited and famous among the Brahmanas canon of texts.<ref name=winter3/> Much of the text is commentaries on Vedic rituals, such as the preparation of the fire altar. It also includes [[Upanayana]], a ceremony that marked the start of [[Brahmacharya]] (student) stage of life, as well as the Vedic era recitation practice of [[Svādhyāya|Svadhyaya]].<ref name=winter3/> The text describes procedures for other important Hindu rituals such as a funeral ceremony. The old and famous [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]] form the closing chapters of Śatapatha Brahmana.<ref name=winter3/>
===[[Atharvaveda]]===
* Shaunaka and Paippalada Shakhas
** The very late [[Gopatha Brahmana]] probably was the Aranyaka of the Paippaladins whose Brahmana is lost.
==Notes==
<references />
{{reflist}}
==References==
* {{cite book| title=A History of Sanskrit Literature |author=[[Arthur Anthony Macdonell]] |year=1900 |location=New York |publisher=D. Appleton and company |chapter=[[s:A History of Sanskrit Literature/Chapter 8|Brāhmaṇas]]}}
* [[Arthur Berriedale Keith]], ''Rigveda Brahmanas'' (1920); reprint: Motilal Banarsidass (1998) ISBN 978-81-208-1359-5.
* A. C. Banerjea, ''Studies in the {{IAST|Brāhmaṇas}}'', Motilal Banarsidass (1963)
* E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma, ''{{IAST|Kauṣītaki-Brāhmaṇa}}'', Wiesbaden (1968, comm. 1976).
* Dumont, P. E. [translations of sections of TB 3 ]. PAPS 92 (1948), 95 (1951), 98 (1954), 101 (1957), 103 (1959), 104 (1960), 105 (1961), 106 (1962), 107 (1963), 108 (1964), 109 (1965), 113 (1969).
* Caland, W. Über das Vadhulasutra; Eine zweite / dritte / vierte Mitteilung über das Vadhulasutra. [= Vadhula Sutra and Brahmana fragments (Anvakhyana)]. Acta Orientalia 1, 3–11; AO II, 142–167; AO IV, 1–41, 161–213; AO VI, 97–241.1922. 1924. 1926. 1928. [= [[Kleine Schriften]], ed. M. WItzel. Stuttgart 1990, pp. 268–541]
* Caland. W. Pancavimsa-Brahmana. The Brahmana of twenty five chapters. (Bibliotheca Indica 255.) Calcutta 1931. Repr. Delhi 1982.
* Bollée, W. B. Sadvinsa-Brahmana. Introd., transl., extracts from the commentaries and notes. Utrecht 1956.
* [[Henk Bodewitz|Bodewitz, H. W.]] Jaiminiya Brahmana I, 1–65. Translation and commentary with a study of the Agnihotra and Pranagnihotra. Leiden 1973.
* Bodewitz, H. W. The Jyotistoma Ritual. Jaiminiya Brahmana I,66-364. Introduction, translation and commentary. Leiden 1990.
* Gaastra, D. Das Gopatha Brahmana, Leiden 1919
* Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b) Strassburg 1899
==External links==
* [http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil.htm#Brahm GRETIL etexts]
[[Category:Brahmanas|*]]
[[Category:Hindu texts]]
{{Hindu scriptures}}
The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads.<ref name=":0">A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0595384556</nowiki>, pages 8-14</ref> The Samhitas are sometimes identified as ''karma-kanda'' (कर्म खण्ड, action/ritual-related section), while the Upanishads are identified as''jnana-kanda'' (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related section).<ref name=":0" /> The Aranyakas and Brahmanas are variously classified, sometimes as the ceremonial ''karma-kanda'', other times (or parts of them) as the ''jnana-kanda''.
Another opinion states: "The ''Samhitas'' and the ''Brahmanas'' form the ''Karma''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They are apparently concerned with the ceremonial rites and rituals. The ''Aranyakas'' and the Upanishads form the ''Gyan''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy and spiritualism.<ref><nowiki>http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm</nowiki>, 6th Paragraph</ref>
Dr. Radhakrishnan puts it like this. “While the hymns or Samhitas are the creation of the poets, the Brahmanas are the work of the priests; the Upanishads are the meditations of the philosophers. The flow of thought from the Samhitas to Brahmanas to Aranyakas to Upanishads is the indication of the process of evolution of Hindu religion over the centuries”
Another learned author says: These are four different modes of expressing the same truths, each as a cross check against others so that misrepresentations are avoided, a method used and valid even today.<ref>Insights Into the Taittiriya Upanishad, Dr. K. S. Narayanacharya, Published by Kautilya Institute of National Studies, Mysore, Page 75 (Glossary)</ref>
The '''Brahmanas''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|r|ɑː|m|ə|n|ə}}; [[Sanskrit]]: {{lang|sa|ब्राह्मणम्}}, ''Brāhmaṇa'') are a collection of ancient Indian texts with commentaries on the hymns of the four [[Vedas]]. They are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases philosophy.<ref name=ebri/><ref name=klkl>[[Klaus Klostermaier]] (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791421093, pages 67-69</ref> They are attached to each Veda, and form a part of the [[Hindu texts|Hindu]] ''[[śruti]]'' literature.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/brahmana "Brahmana"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''</ref>
The ''Brahmanas'' are particularly noted for their instructions on the proper performance of rituals, as well as explain the original symbolic meanings- translated to words and ritual actions in the main text.<ref name=ebri>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana Brahmana] Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref> ''Brahmanas'' lack a homogeneous structure across the different Vedas, with some containing chapters that constitute [[Aranyaka]]s or [[Upanishad]]s in their own right.<ref name=winter3/>
Each Vedic ''[[shakha]]'' (school) has its own ''Brahmana''. Numerous ''Brahmana'' texts existed in ancient India, many of which have been lost.<ref name=winter>Moriz Winternitz (2010), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 175-176</ref> A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant at least in their entirety.
The dating of the final codification of the ''Brahmanas'' and associated Vedic texts is controversial, which occurred after centuries of verbal transmission.<ref>Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791470824, page 47</ref> The oldest is dated to about 900 [[BCE]], while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]]), were complete by about 700 BCE.<ref name=ebri/><ref name=mw>[[Michael Witzel]], "Tracing the Vedic dialects" in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes'' ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.</ref><ref name=bcp>Biswas et al (1989), Cosmic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521343541, pages 42-43</ref> According to [[Jan Gonda]], the final codification of the four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and early Upanishads took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).<ref name=kklo/>
==Discussion==
The ''Brahmanas'' are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the exposition of rituals in the Vedas and in some cases philosophy.<ref name=ebri/><ref name=klkl/> For example, the first chapter of the Chandogya Brahmana, one of the oldest Brahmanas, includes eight ''suktas'' (hymns) for the ceremony of marriage and rituals at the birth of a child.<ref name=maxmullercb/><ref name=pauldeussencb>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, page 63</ref> The first hymn is a recitation that accompanies offering a [[Yajna]] oblation to deity [[Agni]] (fire) on the occasion of a marriage, and the hymn prays for prosperity of the couple getting married.<ref name=pauldeussencb/> The second hymn wishes for their long life, kind relatives, and a numerous progeny.<ref name=maxmullercb/> The third hymn is a mutual marriage pledge, between the bride and groom, by which the two bind themselves to each other, as follows (excerpt),
{{Quote|
<poem>
यदेतद्धृदयं तव तदस्तु हृदयं मम <nowiki>।
यदिदं हृदयं मम तदस्तु हृदयं तव ॥</nowiki>
That heart of thine shall be mine,
and this heart of mine shall be thine.
</poem>
|Chāndogya Brāhmaṇa, Chaper 1, Translated by [[Max Muller]]<ref name=maxmullercb>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad], The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVII with footnote 2</ref><ref>{{Google books|sqqgAAAAMAAJ|The Development of the Female Mind in India|page=27}}, The Calcutta Review, Volume 60, page 27</ref>}}
The next two hymns of the first chapter of the Chandogya Brahmana invoke deities ''Agni'', ''Vayu'', ''Kandramas'', and ''Surya'' to bless the couple and ensure healthful progeny.<ref name=maxmullercb/> The sixth through last hymn of the first chapter in Chandogya Brahmana are not marriage-related, but related to hymns that go with ritual celebrations on the birth of a child, and wishes for health, wealth and prosperity with a profusion of milch-cows and [[artha]].<ref name=maxmullercb/>
The Brahmanas are particularly noted for their instructions on the proper performance of rituals, as well as explain the symbolic importance of sacred words and ritual actions in the main text.<ref name="ebri"/> These instructions insist on exact pronunciation (accent),<ref>The pronunciation challenge arises from the change in meaning, in some cases, if something is pronounced incorrectly; for example hrA, hrada, hradA, hradya, hrag, hrAm and hrAsa, each has different meanings; see Harvey P. Alper (2012), Understanding Mantras, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120807464, pages 104-105</ref> ''[[Vedic meter|chhandas]]'' (छन्दः, meters), precise pitch, with coordinated movement of hand and fingers – that is, perfect delivery.<ref name=klkl/><ref>[[Max Muller]], {{Google books|qdQXYYp9e50C|A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature}}, page 147</ref> Satapatha Brahamana, for example, states that verbal perfection made a mantra infallible, while one mistake made it powerless.<ref name=klkl/> Scholars suggest that this [[Orthology (language)|orthological]] perfection preserved Vedas in an age when writing technology was not in vogue, and the voluminous collection of Vedic knowledge were taught to and memorized by dedicated students through [[Svādhyāya#Svadhyaya as a historical practice|Svādhyāya]], then remembered and verbally transmitted from one generation to the next.<ref name=klkl/><ref>[[Gavin Flood]] (Ed) (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., ISBN 1-4051-3251-5, pages 67-69</ref>
Each Vedic ''[[shakha]]'' (school) has its own Brahmana, many of which have been lost.<ref name=winter/> A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant at least in their entirety: two associated with the [[Rigveda]], six with the [[Yajurveda]], ten with the [[Samaveda]] and one with the [[Atharvaveda]]. Additionally, there are a handful of fragmentarily preserved texts. They vary greatly in length; the edition of the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] fills five volumes of the [[Sacred Books of the East]]. The Brahmanas were seminal in the development of later Indian thought and scholarship, including [[Hindu philosophy]], predecessors of [[Vedanta]], law, astronomy, geometry, linguistics ([[Pāṇini]]), the concept of [[Karma]], or the stages in life such as [[brahmacarya]], [[grihastha]], [[vanaprastha]] and eventually, [[sannyasa]]. Brahmanas also lack a homogeneous structure across the different Vedas, with some containing sections that are [[Aranyaka]]s or [[Upanishad]]s in their own right.
The language of the Brahmanas is a separate stage of [[Vedic Sanskrit]], younger than the text of the samhitas (the ''[[mantra]]'' texts of the Vedas proper), ca.1000BCE, but for the most part are older than the text of the [[Sutra]]s. The dating of the Brahmanas is controversial, with oldest being dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the Shatapatha Brahmana), were complete by about 700 BCE.<ref name=ebri/><ref name=mw/><ref name=bcp/>
According to [[Jan Gonda]], the final codification of the four Vedas, Brahmanas, [[Aranyakas]] and early Upanishads took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).<ref name=kklo>Klaus Klostermaier (1994), A Survey of Hinduism, Second Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791421093, page 67</ref> Erdosy suggests that the later Brahmanas were composed during a period of urbanisation and considerable social change.<ref>Erdosy, George, ed, ''The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity'', New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1995</ref> This period also saw significant developments in mathematics, geometry, biology and grammar.<ref>Doniger, Wendy, ''The Hindus, An Alternative History'', Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-959334-7, pbk</ref>
==List of Brahmanas==
Each Brahmana is associated with one of the four Vedas, and within the tradition of that Veda with a particular [[shakha]] or school:
===[[Rigveda]]===
* Shakala shakha
** [[Aitareya Brahmana]], rarely also known as Ashvalayana Brahmana (AB).<ref>Theodor Aufrecht, ''Das Aitareya Braahmana. Mit Auszügen aus dem Commentare von Sayanacarya und anderen Beilagen'', Bonn 1879; [http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/ind/aind/ved/rv/ab/ab.htm TITUS etext]</ref> It consists of 40 ''adhyayas'' (lessons, chapters), dealing with Soma sacrifice, and in particular the fire sacrifice ritual.<ref name=winter2>Moriz Winternitz (2010), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 176-178</ref> Parts of the Aitareya Brahmana reads like an ''[[Aranyaka]]''.<ref>[[Paul Deussen]], {{Google books|B0QzAQAAMAAJ|The Philosophy of the Upanishads}}, pages 4-6</ref>
* Bashkala or Iksvakus shakha (unclear)<ref>[[Michael Witzel]], [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf The Vedic Canon and its Political Milieu], Harvard University Press, pages 320-321</ref><ref name=keith22>KB Keith, [https://archive.org/stream/rigvedabrahmana00keitgoog#page/n39/mode/2up Rigveda Brahmanas], Harvard Oriental Series, pages 22-45</ref>
** [[Kaushitaki Brahmana]] (also called {{IAST|Śāṅkhāyana}} Brahmana) (KB, ŚānkhB).<ref>ed. E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma, Wiesbaden 1968.</ref> It consistes of 30 chapters, the first six of which are dedicated to food sacrifice, and the remaining to Soma sacrifice in a manner matching the Aitareya Brahmana.<ref name=winter2/>
Keith has published his translation of Aitereya Brahmana,<ref>KB Keith, [https://archive.org/stream/rigvedabrahmana00keitgoog#page/n121/mode/2up Rigveda Brahmanas: Aitereya], Harvard Oriental Series, pages 105-344</ref> and the Kaushitaki Brahmana.<ref>KB Keith, [https://archive.org/stream/rigvedabrahmana00keitgoog#page/n361/mode/2up Rigveda Brahmanas: Kaushitaki], Harvard Oriental Series, pages 345-540</ref>
===[[Samaveda]]===
* Kauthuma and Ranayaniya shakhas
** [[Panchavimsha Brahmana|Tandya Mahabrahmana]] or Panchavimsha Brahmana ({{IAST|Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa}}) (PB) is the principal Brahmana of both the Kauthuma and Ranayaniya shakhas. This is one of the oldest Brahmanas and includes twenty five books. It is notable for its important ancient legends and ''Vratyastomas''.<ref name=winter2/>
** [[Sadvimsha Brahmana]] ({{IAST|Ṣaḍviṃṡa Brāhmaṇa}}) ({{IAST|ṢadvB}}) is considered as an appendix to the Panchavimsha Brahmana and its twenty-sixth ''prapathaka''.<ref name=winter2/>
** Samavidhana Brahmana, and the following Samaveda "Brahmanas" are in Sutra style; it comprises 3 prapathakas.
** Arsheya Brahmana is an index to the hymns of Samaveda.
** Devatadhyaya or Daivata Brahmana comprises 3 khandas, having 26, 11 and 25 kandikas respectively.
** Chandogya Brahmana is divided into ten ''prapathaka''s (chapters). Its first two ''prapathaka''s (chapters) form the Mantra Brahmana (MB) and each of them is divided into eight ''khanda''s (sections). Prapathakas 3–10 form the [[Chandogya Upanishad]].
** Samhitopanishad Brahmana has a single ''prapathaka'' (chapter) divided into five ''khanda''s (sections).
** Vamsa Brahmana consists of one short chapter, detailing successions of teachers and disciples.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dharmicscriptures.org/Vedic_SB_Intro.doc|title=Vedic Samhitas and Brahmanas – A popular, brief introduction}}</ref>
* Jaiminiya shakha
** Jaiminiya Brahmana (JB) is the principal Brahmana of the Jaiminiya shakha, divided into three ''kanda''s (sections). One of the oldest Brahmanas, older than Tandya Mahabrahmana, but only fragments of manuscript have survived.<ref name=winter3>[[Moriz Winternitz]] (2010), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802643, pages 178-180</ref>
** Jaiminiya Arsheya Brahmana is also an index to the hymns of Samaveda, belonging to the Jaiminiya shakha.
** [[Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana]] (JUB) also known as Talavakara Upanishad Brahmana, is to some extent parallel to the Chandogya Upanisad, but older.
===[[Yajurveda]]===
====[[Krishna Yajurveda]]====
* In the Krishna Yajurveda, Brahmana style texts are integrated in the Samhitas; they are older than the Brahmanas proper.
** Maitrayani Samhita (MS) and an Aranyaka (= accented [[Maitrayaniya Upanishad]])
** (Caraka) Katha Samhita (KS); the Katha school has an additional fragmentary Brahmana (KathB) and Aranyaka (KathA)
** Kapisthalakatha Samhita (KpS), and a few small fragments of its Brahmana
** Taittiriya Samhita (TS). In addition to the Brahmana style portions of the Samhita,the Taittiriya school has an additional [[Taittiriya Brahmana]] (TB) and Aranyaka (TA) as well as the late Vedic Vadhula Anvakhyana (Br.).{{citation needed|date=January 2015}} It includes a description of symbolic sacrifices, where meditation substitutes an actual sacrifice.<ref name=winter3/>
====[[Shukla Yajurveda]]====
* Madhyandina Shakha
** [[Shatapatha Brahmana]], Madhyandina recension (SBM)
* Kanva Shakha
** Shatapatha Brahmana, Kanva recension (SBK)
:The Satapatha Brahmana consists of a hundred ''adhyayas'' (chapters), and is the most cited and famous among the Brahmanas canon of texts.<ref name=winter3/> Much of the text is commentaries on Vedic rituals, such as the preparation of the fire altar. It also includes [[Upanayana]], a ceremony that marked the start of [[Brahmacharya]] (student) stage of life, as well as the Vedic era recitation practice of [[Svādhyāya|Svadhyaya]].<ref name=winter3/> The text describes procedures for other important Hindu rituals such as a funeral ceremony. The old and famous [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]] form the closing chapters of Śatapatha Brahmana.<ref name=winter3/>
===[[Atharvaveda]]===
* Shaunaka and Paippalada Shakhas
** The very late [[Gopatha Brahmana]] probably was the Aranyaka of the Paippaladins whose Brahmana is lost.
==Notes==
<references />
{{reflist}}
==References==
* {{cite book| title=A History of Sanskrit Literature |author=[[Arthur Anthony Macdonell]] |year=1900 |location=New York |publisher=D. Appleton and company |chapter=[[s:A History of Sanskrit Literature/Chapter 8|Brāhmaṇas]]}}
* [[Arthur Berriedale Keith]], ''Rigveda Brahmanas'' (1920); reprint: Motilal Banarsidass (1998) ISBN 978-81-208-1359-5.
* A. C. Banerjea, ''Studies in the {{IAST|Brāhmaṇas}}'', Motilal Banarsidass (1963)
* E. R. Sreekrishna Sarma, ''{{IAST|Kauṣītaki-Brāhmaṇa}}'', Wiesbaden (1968, comm. 1976).
* Dumont, P. E. [translations of sections of TB 3 ]. PAPS 92 (1948), 95 (1951), 98 (1954), 101 (1957), 103 (1959), 104 (1960), 105 (1961), 106 (1962), 107 (1963), 108 (1964), 109 (1965), 113 (1969).
* Caland, W. Über das Vadhulasutra; Eine zweite / dritte / vierte Mitteilung über das Vadhulasutra. [= Vadhula Sutra and Brahmana fragments (Anvakhyana)]. Acta Orientalia 1, 3–11; AO II, 142–167; AO IV, 1–41, 161–213; AO VI, 97–241.1922. 1924. 1926. 1928. [= [[Kleine Schriften]], ed. M. WItzel. Stuttgart 1990, pp. 268–541]
* Caland. W. Pancavimsa-Brahmana. The Brahmana of twenty five chapters. (Bibliotheca Indica 255.) Calcutta 1931. Repr. Delhi 1982.
* Bollée, W. B. Sadvinsa-Brahmana. Introd., transl., extracts from the commentaries and notes. Utrecht 1956.
* [[Henk Bodewitz|Bodewitz, H. W.]] Jaiminiya Brahmana I, 1–65. Translation and commentary with a study of the Agnihotra and Pranagnihotra. Leiden 1973.
* Bodewitz, H. W. The Jyotistoma Ritual. Jaiminiya Brahmana I,66-364. Introduction, translation and commentary. Leiden 1990.
* Gaastra, D. Das Gopatha Brahmana, Leiden 1919
* Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b) Strassburg 1899
==External links==
* [http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil.htm#Brahm GRETIL etexts]
[[Category:Brahmanas|*]]
[[Category:Hindu texts]]