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{{Other uses}}

{{Other uses}}

'''''Dasa''''' is a [[Sanskrit]] word found in ancient Indian texts such as the ''[[Rigveda]]'' and ''[[Arthasastra]]''.<ref name=kangle/> It usually means "enemy" or "servant"<ref name=bw/> but ''dasa'', or ''das'', also means a "[[servant of God]]", "devotee," "[[votary]]" or "one who has surrendered to God". Dasa may be a suffix of a given name to indicate a "servant" of a revered person or a particular deity.<ref name=schopen/>

'''''Dasa''''' is a [[Sanskrit]] word found in ancient Bharat's texts such as the ''[[Rigveda]]'' and ''[[Arthasastra]]''.<ref name=kangle/> It usually means "enemy" or "servant"<ref name=bw/> but ''dasa'', or ''das'', also means a "[[servant of God]]", "devotee," "[[votary]]" or "one who has surrendered to God". Dasa may be a suffix of a given name to indicate a "servant" of a revered person or a particular deity.<ref name=schopen/>

''Dasa'', in some contexts, is also related to ''dasyu'' and ''[[asura]]'', which have been translated by some scholars as "demon", "harmful supernatural forces", "slave", "servant" or "barbarian", depending on the context in which the word is used.<ref name=bw/><ref name=washhale>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 159-169</ref>

''Dasa'', in some contexts, is also related to ''dasyu'' and ''[[asura]]'', which have been translated by some scholars as "demon", "harmful supernatural forces", "slave", "servant" or "barbarian", depending on the context in which the word is used.<ref name=bw/><ref name=washhale>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 159-169</ref>

Karl Heinrich Tzschucke in 1806, in his translations of the Roman geographer [[Pomponius Mela]], noted etymological and phonological parallels between ''dasa'' and the ethonyms of the [[Dahae]] – Persian داها; Sanskrit ''Dasa''; Latin ''Dahae''; Greek Δάοι ''Daoi'', Δάαι, Δᾶαι ''Daai'' and Δάσαι ''Dasai'' –  a people who lived on the south-eastern shores of the [[Caspian Sea]] in ancient times (and from whom modern Dehestan/Dehistan takes its name).<ref>See, for example: Pomponius Melo (transl. and ed. by Karl Henrich Tzschucke) ''De sitv orbis libri tres: ad plvrimos codices mostos vel denvo vel primvm consvltos aliorvmqve editiones recensiticvm notis criticis et exegeticis vel integris vel selectis Hermolai Barbari [et al] conlectis praeterea et adpositis doctorvm virorvm animadversionibvs additis svis a Carolo Henrico Tzschvckio'', Vol. II, Pt 1 (1806), p. 95 and; Pomponius Mela (transl. and ed. by Karl Henrich Tzschucke) ''Pomponii Melae de situ orbis: libri tres, ad plurimos codices msstos vel denvo vel primum consultos aliorumque editiones recensiti'', Vol. II, Pt 3 (1806), p. 136.</ref> Likewise [[Max Muller]] proposed that ''dasa'' referred to indigenous peoples living in South Asia before the arrival of the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Aryans]]. However, such theories have long been controversial and are considered by many scholars as inconsistent with the broader usage of ''dasa'' in the ''[[Vedas]]''.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 162-165</ref><ref>Edwin Bryant (2004), The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195169478, pages 59-67</ref>

Karl Heinrich Tzschucke in 1806, in his translations of the Roman geographer [[Pomponius Mela]], noted etymological and phonological parallels between ''dasa'' and the ethonyms of the [[Dahae]] – Persian داها; Sanskrit ''Dasa''; Latin ''Dahae''; Greek Δάοι ''Daoi'', Δάαι, Δᾶαι ''Daai'' and Δάσαι ''Dasai'' –  a people who lived on the south-eastern shores of the [[Caspian Sea]] in ancient times (and from whom modern Dehestan/Dehistan takes its name).<ref>See, for example: Pomponius Melo (transl. and ed. by Karl Henrich Tzschucke) ''De sitv orbis libri tres: ad plvrimos codices mostos vel denvo vel primvm consvltos aliorvmqve editiones recensiticvm notis criticis et exegeticis vel integris vel selectis Hermolai Barbari [et al] conlectis praeterea et adpositis doctorvm virorvm animadversionibvs additis svis a Carolo Henrico Tzschvckio'', Vol. II, Pt 1 (1806), p. 95 and; Pomponius Mela (transl. and ed. by Karl Henrich Tzschucke) ''Pomponii Melae de situ orbis: libri tres, ad plurimos codices msstos vel denvo vel primum consultos aliorumque editiones recensiti'', Vol. II, Pt 3 (1806), p. 136.</ref> Likewise [[Max Muller]] proposed that ''dasa'' referred to indigenous peoples living in South Asia before the arrival of the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Aryans]]. However, such theories have long been controversial and are considered by many scholars as inconsistent with the broader usage of ''dasa'' in the ''[[Vedas]]''.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 162-165</ref><ref>Edwin Bryant (2004), The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195169478, pages 59-67</ref>

[[Monier Monier-Williams]] in 1899, stated that the meaning of ''dasa'' varies contextually and means "mysterious forces", "savages", "barbarians" or "demons" in the earliest layer of Vedic literature – in other contexts, is a self-effacing way to refer oneself as "worshipper" or "devotee aiming to honor a deity", or a "servant of god".<ref name=monier>Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 475</ref> In later Indian literature, according to Monier-Williams, usage of ''dasa'' is used to refer to "a knowing man, or a knower of the universal spirit".<ref>Monier Monier-Williams, ''A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages'', Motilal Banarsidass, page 476</ref> In the altter sense, ''dāsa'' is masculine, while the feminine equivalent is ''dāsi''.<ref name=monier/> Some early 20th Century translations, such as P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), translate ''dasa'' as "slave".<ref>P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 60, No. 3113 pages 841-846</ref>

[[Monier Monier-Williams]] in 1899, stated that the meaning of ''dasa'' varies contextually and means "mysterious forces", "savages", "barbarians" or "demons" in the earliest layer of Vedic literature – in other contexts, is a self-effacing way to refer oneself as "worshipper" or "devotee aiming to honor a deity", or a "servant of god".<ref name=monier>Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 475</ref> In later Bharat's literature, according to Monier-Williams, usage of ''dasa'' is used to refer to "a knowing man, or a knower of the universal spirit".<ref>Monier Monier-Williams, ''A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages'', Motilal Banarsidass, page 476</ref> In the altter sense, ''dāsa'' is masculine, while the feminine equivalent is ''dāsi''.<ref name=monier/> Some early 20th Century translations, such as P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), translate ''dasa'' as "slave".<ref>P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 60, No. 3113 pages 841-846</ref>

Kangle in 1960,<ref name=kangle>R.P. Kangle (1960), The Kautiliya Arthasastra - a critical edition, Vol. 2 and 3, University of Bombay Studies, ISBN 978-8120800427</ref> and others<ref>B. Breloer (1934), Kautiliya Studien, Bd. III, Leipzig, pages 10-16, 30-71</ref> suggest that, depending on the context, ''dasa'' may be translated as "enemy", "servant" or "religious devotee". More recent scholarly interpretations of the Sanskrit words ''dasa'' or ''dasyu'' suggest that these words used throughout the Vedas represents "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw/> In some contexts, the word ''dasa'' may refer to enemies, in other contexts it may refer to those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs, and yet other contexts it may refer to mythical enemies in the battle between good and evil.<ref name=bw>Barbara West (2008), Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, ISBN 978-0816071098, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA182 page 182]</ref>

Kangle in 1960,<ref name=kangle>R.P. Kangle (1960), The Kautiliya Arthasastra - a critical edition, Vol. 2 and 3, University of Bombay Studies, ISBN 978-8120800427</ref> and others<ref>B. Breloer (1934), Kautiliya Studien, Bd. III, Leipzig, pages 10-16, 30-71</ref> suggest that, depending on the context, ''dasa'' may be translated as "enemy", "servant" or "religious devotee". More recent scholarly interpretations of the Sanskrit words ''dasa'' or ''dasyu'' suggest that these words used throughout the Vedas represents "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw/> In some contexts, the word ''dasa'' may refer to enemies, in other contexts it may refer to those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs, and yet other contexts it may refer to mythical enemies in the battle between good and evil.<ref name=bw>Barbara West (2008), Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, ISBN 978-0816071098, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA182 page 182]</ref>

[[Michael Witzel]] in his review of Indo-Iranian texts in 1995, states that ''dasa'' in the Vedic literature represented a North Iranian tribe, who were enemies of the Vedic Aryans, and ''das-yu'' meant "enemy, foreigner."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Witzel |title=Autochthonous Aryans? |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=7 |number=3 |year=2001 |p=16 |url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2008/118}}</ref> He notes that these enemies could have apparently become slaves if captured. Witzel compares the etymological root of ''dasa'' to words from other Indo-European languages that imply "enemy, foreigner", including the Avestan ''dahåka'' and ''dŋha'', Latin ''dahi'' and Greek ''daai''.<ref>Michael Witzel (1995), Early Indian history: Linguistic and textual parameters, in The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia (Editor: G. Erdosy), de Gruyter, pages 85-125</ref>

[[Michael Witzel]] in his review of Indo-Iranian texts in 1995, states that ''dasa'' in the Vedic literature represented a North Iranian tribe, who were enemies of the Vedic Aryans, and ''das-yu'' meant "enemy, foreigner."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Witzel |title=Autochthonous Aryans? |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=7 |number=3 |year=2001 |p=16 |url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2008/118}}</ref> He notes that these enemies could have apparently become slaves if captured. Witzel compares the etymological root of ''dasa'' to words from other Indo-European languages that imply "enemy, foreigner", including the Avestan ''dahåka'' and ''dŋha'', Latin ''dahi'' and Greek ''daai''.<ref>Michael Witzel (1995), Early Bharat's history: Linguistic and textual parameters, in The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia (Editor: G. Erdosy), de Gruyter, pages 85-125</ref>

[[Asko Parpola]] in 2015, has proposed that ''dasa'' is related to the ancient Iranian and proto-Saka word ''daha'', which means "man".{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=100-106}} Parpola states that ''dasa'' referred only to Central Asian peoples.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=82-85, 96-106}} This is contrasted with ''arya'', the word for "man" used by, and of, Indo-European people from Central Asia. Consequently, a Vedic text that include prayers for the defeat of the ''dasa'' as an "enemy people", according to Parpola, possibly refers to people from the so-called [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC), who spoke a different language and opposed Aryan religious practices.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=82-85, 96-106}} Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory, but this is controversial.<ref name="jstor.org">Colin Renfrew (1991), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25182273 The Coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the Cultural and Ethnic Identity of the Dāsas by Asko Parpola], Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol. 1, No. 1, pages 106-109</ref>

[[Asko Parpola]] in 2015, has proposed that ''dasa'' is related to the ancient Iranian and proto-Saka word ''daha'', which means "man".{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=100-106}} Parpola states that ''dasa'' referred only to Central Asian peoples.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=82-85, 96-106}} This is contrasted with ''arya'', the word for "man" used by, and of, Indo-European people from Central Asia. Consequently, a Vedic text that include prayers for the defeat of the ''dasa'' as an "enemy people", according to Parpola, possibly refers to people from the so-called [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC), who spoke a different language and opposed Aryan religious practices.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=82-85, 96-106}} Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory, but this is controversial.<ref name="jstor.org">Colin Renfrew (1991), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25182273 The Coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the Cultural and Ethnic Identity of the Dāsas by Asko Parpola], Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol. 1, No. 1, pages 106-109</ref>

===Rig Veda===

===Rig Veda===

''Dasa'' and related words such as ''Dasyu'' are found in the Rig Veda. They have been variously translated, depending on the context. These words represent in some context represent "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw/> In other contexts, the word ''dasa'' refers to enemies and in other contexts, those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs.<ref name="bw"/><ref>[[R. C. Majumdar]] and A. D. Pusalker (editors): ''[[The History and Culture of the Indian People]]. Volume I, The Vedic age''. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.253. Keith and Macdonell 1922, ISBN 978-8172764401</ref>

''Dasa'' and related words such as ''Dasyu'' are found in the Rig Veda. They have been variously translated, depending on the context. These words represent in some context represent "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw/> In other contexts, the word ''dasa'' refers to enemies and in other contexts, those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs.<ref name="bw"/><ref>[[R. C. Majumdar]] and A. D. Pusalker (editors): ''[[The History and Culture of the Bharat's People]]. Volume I, The Vedic age''. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.253. Keith and Macdonell 1922, ISBN 978-8172764401</ref>

[[A. A. Macdonell]] and [[A. B. Keith]] in 1912 remarked that, "The great difference between the Dasyus and the Aryans was their religion... It is significant that constant reference is made to difference in religion between Aryans and Dasa and Dasyu."{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

[[A. A. Macdonell]] and [[A. B. Keith]] in 1912 remarked that, "The great difference between the Dasyus and the Aryans was their religion... It is significant that constant reference is made to difference in religion between Aryans and Dasa and Dasyu."{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}