Changes

Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) (view source)

Revision as of 15:47, 4 December 2018

38 bytes added , 15:47, 4 December 2018

m

Text replacement - "Indian" to "Bharat's"

Line 53: Line 53:

In [[Vedic Sanskrit]]:

−

*''Brahma'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''brahman'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuter<ref name="neuter">Not Masculine or Feminine (see [[Grammatical gender]]).</ref> [[gender]]) from root ''bṛh-'', means "to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote".<ref name="jangondaetymo">[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-~~Indian~~ Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 268-269</ref>

+

*''Brahma'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''brahman'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuter<ref name="neuter">Not Masculine or Feminine (see [[Grammatical gender]]).</ref> [[gender]]) from root ''bṛh-'', means "to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote".<ref name="jangondaetymo">[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Bharat's Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 268-269</ref>

*''Brahmāna'' (ब्रह्मन) (nominative singular, never plural), from stems ''brha'' (to make firm, strong, expand) + Sanskrit ''-man-'' from Indo-European root ''-men-'' which denotes some manifested form of "definite power, inherent firmness, supporting or fundamental principle".<ref name="jangondaetymo" />

In later Sanskrit usage:

Line 83: Line 83:

</ref> and in [[Atharvaveda|Atharva veda]] hymns such as 6.122.5, 10.1.12, and 14.1.131.<ref name="mauricebrahman" /> The concept is found in various layers of the Vedic literature; for example:<ref name="mauricebrahman" /> Aitareya [[Brahmana]] 1.18.3, Kausitaki Brahmana 6.12, Satapatha Brahmana 13.5.2.5, Taittiriya Brahmana 2.8.8.10, Jaiminiya Brahmana 1.129, Taittiriya [[Aranyaka]] 4.4.1 through 5.4.1, Vajasaneyi Samhita 22.4 through 23.25, Maitrayani Samhita 3.12.1:16.2 through 4.9.2:122.15. The concept is extensively discussed in the Upanishads embedded in the Vedas (see next section), and also mentioned in the [[Vedas#Vedanga|vedāṅga]] (the limbs of Vedas) such as the Srauta sutra 1.12.12 and Paraskara Gryhasutra 3.2.10 through 3.4.5.<ref name="mauricebrahman" />

−

[[Jan Gonda]] states that the diverse reference of ''Brahman'' in the Vedic literature, starting with Rigveda Samhitas, convey "different senses or different shades of meaning".<ref name="jangondameaning">[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-~~Indian~~ Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 269-271</ref> There is no one single word in modern Western languages that can render the various shades of meaning of the word ''Brahman'' in the Vedic literature, according to Jan Gonda.<ref name="jangondameaning" /> In verses considered as the most ancient, the Vedic idea of ''Brahman'' is the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas". However, states Gonda, the verses suggest that this ancient meaning was never the only meaning, and the concept evolved and expanded in ancient India.<ref>[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-~~Indian~~ Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 271-272</ref>

+

[[Jan Gonda]] states that the diverse reference of ''Brahman'' in the Vedic literature, starting with Rigveda Samhitas, convey "different senses or different shades of meaning".<ref name="jangondameaning">[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Bharat's Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 269-271</ref> There is no one single word in modern Western languages that can render the various shades of meaning of the word ''Brahman'' in the Vedic literature, according to Jan Gonda.<ref name="jangondameaning" /> In verses considered as the most ancient, the Vedic idea of ''Brahman'' is the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas". However, states Gonda, the verses suggest that this ancient meaning was never the only meaning, and the concept evolved and expanded in ancient India.<ref>[[Jan Gonda]] (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Bharat's Religious Terminology, History of Religions, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 271-272</ref>

Barbara Holdrege states that the concept ''Brahman'' is discussed in the Vedas along four major themes: as the Word or verses (''Sabdabrahman''),<ref>See Rigveda Chapter 1.164;

−

Karl Potter and Harold Coward, The Philosophy of the Grammarians, Encyclopedia of ~~Indian~~ Philosophies: Volume 5, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-8120804265, pages 34-35

+

Karl Potter and Harold Coward, The Philosophy of the Grammarians, Encyclopedia of Bharat's Philosophies: Volume 5, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-8120804265, pages 34-35

</ref> as Knowledge embodied in Creator Principle, as Creation itself, and a Corpus of traditions.<ref>Barbara Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791416402, page 24</ref> Hananya Goodman states that the Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principles underlying all that exists.<ref name="Hananya Goodman 1994 page 121" /> [[Gavin Flood]] states that the Vedic era witnessed a process of abstraction, where the concept of ''Brahman'' evolved and expanded from the power of sound, words and rituals to the "essence of the universe", the "deeper foundation of all phenomena", the "essence of the self ([[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]], soul)", and the deeper "truth of a person beyond apparent difference".<ref name="gavinflood84">Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, pages 84-85</ref>

===Upanishads===

−

The primary focus on the early Upanishads is ''Brahmavidya'' and ''Atmavidya'', that is the knowledge of Brahman and the knowledge of Atman (self, soul), what it is and how it is understood.<ref>R Prasad and P.D. Chattopadhyaya (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical ~~Indian~~ Philosophy of Morals, Concept, ISBN 978-8180695445, page 56</ref> The texts do not present a single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism.<ref name="sphilips" />

+

The primary focus on the early Upanishads is ''Brahmavidya'' and ''Atmavidya'', that is the knowledge of Brahman and the knowledge of Atman (self, soul), what it is and how it is understood.<ref>R Prasad and P.D. Chattopadhyaya (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Bharat's Philosophy of Morals, Concept, ISBN 978-8180695445, page 56</ref> The texts do not present a single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism.<ref name="sphilips" />

[[Paul Deussen]] states that the concept of ''Brahman'' in the Upanishads expands to metaphysical, ontological and soteriological themes, such as it being the "primordial reality that creates, maintains and withdraws within it the universe",<ref name="pauldeussen243">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, page 243, 325-344, 363, 581</ref> the "principle of the world",<ref name="pauldeussen243" /> the "absolute",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, page 358, 371</ref> the "general, universal",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, page 305, 476</ref> the "cosmic principle",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 110, 315-316, 495, 838-851</ref> the "ultimate that is the cause of everything including all gods",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 211, 741-742</ref> the "divine being, Lord, distinct God, or God within oneself",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 308-311, 497-499</ref> the "knowledge",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 181, 237, 444, 506-544, 570-571, 707, 847-850</ref> the "soul, sense of self of each human being that is fearless, luminuous, exalted and blissful",<ref name="pauldeussen52">Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 52, 110, 425, 454, 585-586, 838-851</ref> the "essence of liberation, of spiritual freedom",<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 173-174, 188-198, 308-317, 322-324, 367, 447, 496, 629-637, 658, 707-708</ref> the "universe within each living being and the universe outside",<ref name="pauldeussen52" /> the "essence and everything innate in all that exists inside, outside and everywhere".<ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814677, pages 600, 619-620, 647, 777</ref>

Line 127: Line 127:

English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/246/mode/2up Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7, also known as Aitareya Aranyaka 2.6.1.7] Oxford University Press, page 246

</ref>

−

|}The Upanishad discuss the metaphysical concept of Brahman in many ways, such as the Śāṇḍilya doctrine in Chapter 3 of the Chandogya Upanishad, among of the oldest Upanishadic texts. The Śāṇḍilya doctrine on Brahman is not unique to Chandogya Upanishad, but found in other ancient texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana in section 10.6.3. It asserts that Atman (Soul, Self inside man) exists, the Brahman is identical with Atman, that the Brahman is inside man – thematic quotations that are frequently cited by later schools of Hinduism and modern studies on ~~Indian~~ philosophies.<ref name="gjha314">[https://archive.org/stream/Shankara.Bhashya-Chandogya.Upanishad-Ganganath.Jha.1942.English#page/n165/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad with Shankara Bhashya] Ganganath Jha (Translator), pages 150-157</ref><ref>For modern era cites:

+

|}The Upanishad discuss the metaphysical concept of Brahman in many ways, such as the Śāṇḍilya doctrine in Chapter 3 of the Chandogya Upanishad, among of the oldest Upanishadic texts. The Śāṇḍilya doctrine on Brahman is not unique to Chandogya Upanishad, but found in other ancient texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana in section 10.6.3. It asserts that Atman (Soul, Self inside man) exists, the Brahman is identical with Atman, that the Brahman is inside man – thematic quotations that are frequently cited by later schools of Hinduism and modern studies on Bharat's philosophies.<ref name="gjha314">[https://archive.org/stream/Shankara.Bhashya-Chandogya.Upanishad-Ganganath.Jha.1942.English#page/n165/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad with Shankara Bhashya] Ganganath Jha (Translator), pages 150-157</ref><ref>For modern era cites:

−

*Anthony Warder (2009), A Course in ~~Indian~~ Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812444, pages 25-28;

+

*Anthony Warder (2009), A Course in Bharat's Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812444, pages 25-28;

*DD Meyer (2012), Consciousness, Theatre, Literature and the Arts, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1443834919, page 250;

*Joel Brereton (1995), Eastern Canons: Approaches to the Asian Classics (Editors: William Theodore De Bary, Irene Bloom), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231070058, page 130;

Line 140: Line 140:

==Discussion==

===Brahman as a metaphysical concept===

−

Brahman is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of [[metaphysics]]: what is ultimately real, and are there principles applying to everything that is real?<ref>Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/metaphysics/ Metaphysics], Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISBN 978-0415073103, Accessed (June 13, 2015)</ref> Brahman is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing" [[Maya (illusion)|Māyā]] in various orthodox Hindu schools. Māyā pre-exists and co-exists with Brahman – the Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal, the Cosmic Principles.<ref name="aegough">Archibald Edward Gough (2001), The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient ~~Indian~~ Metaphysics, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415245227, pages 47-48</ref>

+

Brahman is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of [[metaphysics]]: what is ultimately real, and are there principles applying to everything that is real?<ref>Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/metaphysics/ Metaphysics], Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISBN 978-0415073103, Accessed (June 13, 2015)</ref> Brahman is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing" [[Maya (illusion)|Māyā]] in various orthodox Hindu schools. Māyā pre-exists and co-exists with Brahman – the Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal, the Cosmic Principles.<ref name="aegough">Archibald Edward Gough (2001), The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient Bharat's Metaphysics, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415245227, pages 47-48</ref>

−

In addition to the concept of Brahman, Hindu metaphysics includes the concept of [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] – or soul, self – which is also considered ultimately real.<ref name="aegough" /> The various schools of Hinduism, particularly the [[Dualism|dual]] and non-dual schools, differ on the nature of Atman, whether it is distinct from Brahman, or same as Brahman. Those that consider Brahman and Atman as distinct are theistic, and [[Dvaita Vedanta]] and later [[Nyaya]] schools illustrate this premise.<ref>Roy W. Perrett (Editor, 2000), ~~Indian~~ Philosophy: Metaphysics, Volume 3, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0815336082, page xvii;

+

In addition to the concept of Brahman, Hindu metaphysics includes the concept of [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] – or soul, self – which is also considered ultimately real.<ref name="aegough" /> The various schools of Hinduism, particularly the [[Dualism|dual]] and non-dual schools, differ on the nature of Atman, whether it is distinct from Brahman, or same as Brahman. Those that consider Brahman and Atman as distinct are theistic, and [[Dvaita Vedanta]] and later [[Nyaya]] schools illustrate this premise.<ref>Roy W. Perrett (Editor, 2000), Bharat's Philosophy: Metaphysics, Volume 3, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0815336082, page xvii;

−

KK Chakrabarti (1999), Classical ~~Indian~~ Philosophy of Mind: The Nyaya Dualist Tradition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791441718 pages 279-292

+

KK Chakrabarti (1999), Classical Bharat's Philosophy of Mind: The Nyaya Dualist Tradition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791441718 pages 279-292

</ref> Those that consider Brahman and Atman as same are monist or pantheistic, and [[Advaita Vedanta]], later [[Samkhya]]<ref>John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120801585, pages 60-62</ref> and [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] schools illustrate this metaphysical premise.<ref>Julius Lipner (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, pages 22-23</ref><ref>Laurie Patton (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, pages 45-50</ref><ref>JD Fowler (1996), Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex University Press, ISBN 978-1898723608, pages 135-137</ref> In schools that equate Brahman with Atman, Brahman is the sole, ultimate reality.<ref name="acdas">AC Das (1952), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144-154</ref> The predominant teaching in the Upanishads is the spiritual identity of soul within each human being, with the soul of every other human being and living being, as well as with the supreme, ultimate reality ''Brahman''.<ref>William Indich (2000), Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120812512, page 5</ref><ref>Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pages 101-109 (in German), also pages 69-99;

Line 154: Line 154:

While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'', they also expound on Brahman as ''[[saguna Brahman]]'' – the Brahman with attributes, and ''[[nirguna Brahman]]'' – the Brahman without attributes.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6</ref> The ''nirguna Brahman'' is the Brahman as it really is, however, the ''saguna Brahman'' is posited as a means to realizing ''nirguna Brahman'', but the Hinduism schools declare ''saguna Brahman'' to be ultimately illusory.<ref name="williamw">William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: June 13, 2015)</ref> The concept of the ''saguna Brahman'', such as in the form of [[avatar]]s, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.<ref name="williamw" />

===Brahman as an ontological concept===

−

Brahman, along with Soul/Self (Atman) are part of the ontological<ref>that is things, beings or truths that are presumed to exist for its philosophical theory to be true, and what is the nature of that which so exists?; see: Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/ontology/ Ontology], Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISBN 978-0415073103</ref> premises of ~~Indian~~ philosophy.<ref>Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/ontology/ Ontology], Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISBN 978-0415073103, Accessed (June 13, 2015)</ref><ref>Stephen H. Phillips (2001), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1400164 Could There Be Mystical Evidence for a Nondual Brahman? A Causal Objection], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 51, No. 4, pages 492-506</ref> Different schools of ~~Indian~~ philosophy have held widely dissimilar ontologies. [[Buddhism]] and [[Carvaka]] school of Hinduism deny that there exists anything called "a soul, a self" (individual Atman or Brahman in the cosmic sense), while the orthodox schools of Hinduism, [[Jainism]] and [[Ajivika]]s hold that there exists "a soul, a self".<ref>KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-8120806191, pages 246-249, from note 385 onwards;

+

Brahman, along with Soul/Self (Atman) are part of the ontological<ref>that is things, beings or truths that are presumed to exist for its philosophical theory to be true, and what is the nature of that which so exists?; see: Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/ontology/ Ontology], Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISBN 978-0415073103</ref> premises of Bharat's philosophy.<ref>Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/ontology/ Ontology], Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISBN 978-0415073103, Accessed (June 13, 2015)</ref><ref>Stephen H. Phillips (2001), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1400164 Could There Be Mystical Evidence for a Nondual Brahman? A Causal Objection], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 51, No. 4, pages 492-506</ref> Different schools of Bharat's philosophy have held widely dissimilar ontologies. [[Buddhism]] and [[Carvaka]] school of Hinduism deny that there exists anything called "a soul, a self" (individual Atman or Brahman in the cosmic sense), while the orthodox schools of Hinduism, [[Jainism]] and [[Ajivika]]s hold that there exists "a soul, a self".<ref>KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-8120806191, pages 246-249, from note 385 onwards;

Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791422175, page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of [[Ātman (Hinduism)|ātman]] is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";

Line 162: Line 162:

Katie Javanaud (2013), [https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?], Philosophy Now;

−

John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120801585, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".</ref><ref>M Prabhakar (2012), Review: An Introduction to ~~Indian~~ Philosophy, Philosophy in Review, 32(3), pages 158-160</ref>

+

John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120801585, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".</ref><ref>M Prabhakar (2012), Review: An Introduction to Bharat's Philosophy, Philosophy in Review, 32(3), pages 158-160</ref>

Brahman as well the Atman in every human being (and living being) is considered equivalent and the sole reality, the eternal, self-born, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute in schools of Hinduism such as the [[Advaita Vedanta]] and [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]].<ref name="barbarasca">Barbara Holdrege (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, pages 241-242</ref><ref>Anantanand Rambachan (2014), A Hindu Theology of Liberation: Not-Two Is Not One, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438454559, pages 131-142</ref><ref>Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791438152, pages 298-300;

Line 173: Line 173:

Other schools of Hinduism have their own ontological premises relating to Brahman, reality and nature of existence. [[Vaisheshika]] school of Hinduism, for example, holds a substantial, realist ontology.<ref>Randy Kloetzli and Alf Hiltebeitel (2004), The Hindu World (Editors: S Mittal and G Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0415215277, page 554</ref> The [[Carvaka]] school denied Brahman and Atman, and held a materialist ontology.<ref>Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700712571, pages 30-31</ref>

===Brahman as an axiological concept===

−

Brahman and Atman are key concepts to Hindu theories of [[axiology]]: ethics and aesthetics.<ref>R Prasad and P.D. Chattopadhyaya (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical ~~Indian~~ Philosophy of Morals, Concept, ISBN 978-8180695445, pages 56-59</ref><ref>GC Pande (1990), Foundations of ~~Indian~~ Culture, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120807105, pages 49-50</ref> ''Ananda'' (bliss), state Michael Myers and other scholars, has axiological importance to the concept of Brahman, as the universal inner harmony.<ref>Michael W. Myers (1998), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1400017 Śaṅkarācārya and Ānanda], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 48, No. 4, pages 553-567</ref><ref>Robert S. Hartman (2002), The Knowledge of Good: Critique of Axiological Reason, Rodopi, ISBN 978-9042012202, page 225</ref> Some scholars equate Brahman with the highest value, in an axiological sense.<ref>TMP Mahadevan (1954), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397291 The Metaphysics of Śaṁkara], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 3, No. 4, pages 359-363</ref>

+

Brahman and Atman are key concepts to Hindu theories of [[axiology]]: ethics and aesthetics.<ref>R Prasad and P.D. Chattopadhyaya (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Bharat's Philosophy of Morals, Concept, ISBN 978-8180695445, pages 56-59</ref><ref>GC Pande (1990), Foundations of Bharat's Culture, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120807105, pages 49-50</ref> ''Ananda'' (bliss), state Michael Myers and other scholars, has axiological importance to the concept of Brahman, as the universal inner harmony.<ref>Michael W. Myers (1998), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1400017 Śaṅkarācārya and Ānanda], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 48, No. 4, pages 553-567</ref><ref>Robert S. Hartman (2002), The Knowledge of Good: Critique of Axiological Reason, Rodopi, ISBN 978-9042012202, page 225</ref> Some scholars equate Brahman with the highest value, in an axiological sense.<ref>TMP Mahadevan (1954), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397291 The Metaphysics of Śaṁkara], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 3, No. 4, pages 359-363</ref>

The axiological concepts of Brahman and Atman is central to Hindu theory of values.<ref>Arvind Sharma (1999), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/40018229 The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism], The Journal of Religious Ethics, Vol. 27, No. 2, pages 223-256</ref> A statement such as ‘I am Brahman’, states Shaw, means ‘I am related to everything,’ and this is the underlying premise for compassion for others in Hinduism, for each individual's welfare, peace, or happiness depends on others, including other beings and nature at large, and vice versa.<ref>JL Shaw (2011), [http://www.sjsu.edu/people/anand.vaidya/courses/comparativephilosophy/s1/Freedom-East-and-West-by-J-L-Shaw.pdf Freedom: East and West], ''SOPHIA'', Vol 50, Springer Science, pages 481–497</ref> Tietge states that even in non-dual schools of Hinduism where Brahman and Atman are treated ontologically equivalent, the theory of values emphasize individual agent and ethics. In these schools of Hinduism, states Tietge, the theory of action are derived from and centered in compassion for the other, and not egotistical concern for the self.<ref>Katherine L Tietge (1997), ''Ontology and Genuine Moral Action: Jñaña (Intuitive Perception) Ethics and Karma-Yoga in Sankara's Advaita Vedanta and Schopenhauer's On the Basis of Morality'', Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. of Philosophy, Southern Illinois University (USA), [http://philpapers.org/rec/TIEOAG Archive Link]</ref>

−

The axiological theory of values emerges implicitly from the concepts of Brahman and Atman, states Bauer.<ref name="nancybauer">Nancy Bauer (1987), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399082 Advaita Vedānta and Contemporary Western Ethics], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 37, No. 1, pages 36-50</ref> The aesthetics of human experience and ethics are one consequence of self-knowledge in Hinduism, one resulting from the perfect, timeless unification of one's soul with the Brahman, the soul of everyone, everything and all eternity, wherein the pinnacle of human experience is not dependent on an afterlife, but pure consciousness in the present life itself.<ref name="nancybauer" /> It does not assume that an individual is weak nor does it presume that he is inherently evil, but the opposite: human soul and its nature is held as fundamentally unqualified, faultless, beautiful, blissful, ethical, compassionate and good.<ref name="nancybauer" /><ref>Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195644418, pages 57-61</ref> Ignorance is to assume it evil, liberation is to know its eternal, expansive, pristine, happy and good nature.<ref name="nancybauer" /> The axiological premises in the Hindu thought and ~~Indian~~ philosophies in general, states Nikam, is to elevate the individual, exalting the innate potential of man, where the reality of his being is the objective reality of the universe.<ref name="nikam">NA Nikam (1952), A Note on the Individual and His Status in ~~Indian~~ Thought, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 3, pages 254-258</ref> The Upanishads of Hinduism, summarizes Nikam, hold that the individual has the same essence and reality as the objective universe, and this essence is the finest essence; the individual soul is the universal soul, and Atman is the same reality and the same aesthetics as the Brahman.<ref name="nikam" />

+

The axiological theory of values emerges implicitly from the concepts of Brahman and Atman, states Bauer.<ref name="nancybauer">Nancy Bauer (1987), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399082 Advaita Vedānta and Contemporary Western Ethics], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 37, No. 1, pages 36-50</ref> The aesthetics of human experience and ethics are one consequence of self-knowledge in Hinduism, one resulting from the perfect, timeless unification of one's soul with the Brahman, the soul of everyone, everything and all eternity, wherein the pinnacle of human experience is not dependent on an afterlife, but pure consciousness in the present life itself.<ref name="nancybauer" /> It does not assume that an individual is weak nor does it presume that he is inherently evil, but the opposite: human soul and its nature is held as fundamentally unqualified, faultless, beautiful, blissful, ethical, compassionate and good.<ref name="nancybauer" /><ref>Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195644418, pages 57-61</ref> Ignorance is to assume it evil, liberation is to know its eternal, expansive, pristine, happy and good nature.<ref name="nancybauer" /> The axiological premises in the Hindu thought and Bharat's philosophies in general, states Nikam, is to elevate the individual, exalting the innate potential of man, where the reality of his being is the objective reality of the universe.<ref name="nikam">NA Nikam (1952), A Note on the Individual and His Status in Bharat's Thought, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 3, pages 254-258</ref> The Upanishads of Hinduism, summarizes Nikam, hold that the individual has the same essence and reality as the objective universe, and this essence is the finest essence; the individual soul is the universal soul, and Atman is the same reality and the same aesthetics as the Brahman.<ref name="nikam" />

===Brahman as a soteriological concept: Moksha===

−

{{Main|Moksha}}The orthodox schools of Hinduism, particularly Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, focus on the concept of Brahman and Atman in their discussion of [[moksha]]. The Advaita Vedanta holds there is no being/non-being distinction between Atman and Brahman. The knowledge of Atman (Self-knowledge) is synonymous to the knowledge of Brahman inside the person and outside the person. Furthermore, the knowledge of Brahman leads to sense of oneness with all existence, self-realization, indescribable joy, and moksha (freedom, bliss),<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas, University of Hawaii Press, pages 124-125</ref> because Brahman-Atman is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone.<ref>Karl Potter (2008), The Encyclopedia of ~~Indian~~ Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils, Volume 3, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp 210-215</ref>

+

{{Main|Moksha}}The orthodox schools of Hinduism, particularly Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, focus on the concept of Brahman and Atman in their discussion of [[moksha]]. The Advaita Vedanta holds there is no being/non-being distinction between Atman and Brahman. The knowledge of Atman (Self-knowledge) is synonymous to the knowledge of Brahman inside the person and outside the person. Furthermore, the knowledge of Brahman leads to sense of oneness with all existence, self-realization, indescribable joy, and moksha (freedom, bliss),<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas, University of Hawaii Press, pages 124-125</ref> because Brahman-Atman is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone.<ref>Karl Potter (2008), The Encyclopedia of Bharat's Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils, Volume 3, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp 210-215</ref>

The theistic sub-school such as Dvaita Vedanta of Hinduism, starts with the same premises, but adds the premise that individual souls and Brahman are distinct, and thereby reaches entirely different conclusions where Brahman is conceptualized in a manner similar to God in other major world religions.<ref name="mmyers" /> The theistic schools assert that moksha is the loving, eternal union or nearness of one's soul with the distinct and separate Brahman ([[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]] or equivalent henotheism). Brahman, in these sub-schools of Hinduism is considered the highest perfection of existence, which every soul journeys towards in its own way for moksha.<ref>Betty, Stafford (2010) "Dvaita, Advaita, And Viśiṣṭadvaita: Contrasting Views Of Mokṣa", Asian Philosophy, pages 215-224</ref>

Line 227: Line 227:

''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna'' Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the ''Nirguni'' tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".<ref name="davidlorenzenns">David Lorenzen (1996), Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791428054, page 2</ref> Yet given the "mountains of ''Nirguni'' bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for ''Nirguna Brahman'' has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for ''Saguna Brahman''.<ref name="davidlorenzenns" /> These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.<ref name="karen21" />

==Comparison of Brahma, Brahman, Brahmin and Brahmanas==

−

[[Brahma]] is distinct from Brahman.<ref name="BondKunin2003p231">{{cite book|author1=Helen K. Bond |author2=Seth D. Kunin|author3=Francesca Murphy |title=Religious Studies and Theology: An Introduction |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HokZ5UW5fZsC&pg=PA231 |year=2003|publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9914-7 |pages=231 }}</ref> Brahma is a male deity, in the post-Vedic Puranic literature,<ref name="pandeyp40">{{cite book|author=R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen|title=Foundations of ~~Indian~~ Psychology Volume 2: Practical Applications|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BkkgeKXyiOIC |year=2011|publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-81-317-3085-0 |pages=40 }}</ref> who creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical Brahman along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other gods, goddesses, matter and other beings.<ref name="Doniger1999p437">{{cite book|author=Wendy Denier|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC |year=1999|publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |pages=437 }}</ref> In theistic schools of Hinduism where deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal like all gods and goddesses, and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, thereafter a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts again.<ref name="pandeyp40" /><ref name="Fowler2002p330">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C |year=2002|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-93-6 |pages=330 }}</ref>

+

[[Brahma]] is distinct from Brahman.<ref name="BondKunin2003p231">{{cite book|author1=Helen K. Bond |author2=Seth D. Kunin|author3=Francesca Murphy |title=Religious Studies and Theology: An Introduction |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HokZ5UW5fZsC&pg=PA231 |year=2003|publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9914-7 |pages=231 }}</ref> Brahma is a male deity, in the post-Vedic Puranic literature,<ref name="pandeyp40">{{cite book|author=R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen|title=Foundations of Bharat's Psychology Volume 2: Practical Applications|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BkkgeKXyiOIC |year=2011|publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-81-317-3085-0 |pages=40 }}</ref> who creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical Brahman along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other gods, goddesses, matter and other beings.<ref name="Doniger1999p437">{{cite book|author=Wendy Denier|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC |year=1999|publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |pages=437 }}</ref> In theistic schools of Hinduism where deity Brahma is described as part of its cosmology, he is a mortal like all gods and goddesses, and dissolves into the abstract immortal Brahman when the universe ends, thereafter a new cosmic cycle (kalpa) restarts again.<ref name="pandeyp40" /><ref name="Fowler2002p330">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C |year=2002|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-93-6 |pages=330 }}</ref>

Brahman is a metaphysical concept of Hinduism referring to the ultimate unchanging reality,<ref name="BondKunin2003p231" /><ref>{{cite book|author=William Sweet |title=Approaches to Metaphysics |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cyCme74cZ1IC |year=2006|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-2182-4|pages=145–147 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=H. James Birx |title=Encyclopedia of Anthropology |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8m_vBQAAQBAJ |year=2005|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6536-0 |pages=1279 }}</ref> that, states Doniger, is uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, the cause, the foundation, the source and the goal of all existence.<ref name="Doniger1999p437" /> It is envisioned as either the cause or that which transforms itself into everything that exists in the universe as well as all beings, that which existed before the present universe and time, which exists as current universe and time, and that which will absorb and exist after the present universe and time ends.<ref name="Doniger1999p437" /> It is a gender neutral abstract concept.<ref name="Doniger1999p437" /><ref>{{cite book|author=J. L. Brockington|title=The Sanskrit Epics|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C |year=1998|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-10260-4 |pages=256 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Denise Cush |author2=Catherine Robinson |author3=Michael York |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-18979-2 |pages=114–115 }}</ref> The abstract Brahman concept is predominant in the Vedic texts, particularly the Upanishads;<ref>{{cite book|author=Edward Craig|title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lS2cSqwMtf8C |year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-18707-7 |pages=1–4 }}</ref> while the deity Brahma finds minor mention in the Vedas and the Upanishads.<ref>{{cite book|author=Julius Lipner |title=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HDMLYkIOoWYC |year=1994|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-05181-1 |pages=43–44 }}</ref> In the Puranic and the Epics literature, deity Brahma appears more often, but inconsistently. Some texts suggest that god Vishnu created Brahma (Vaishnavism),<ref>{{cite book|author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1098-3 |pages=147 }}</ref> others suggest god Shiva created Brahma (Shaivism),<ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty |title=Siva: The Erotic Ascetic |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dnfZ_MBErlQC |year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972793-3 |pages=125 }}</ref> yet others suggest goddess Devi created Brahma (Shaktism),<ref name="kinsley137">{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HzldwMHeS6IC |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=137 }}</ref> and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.<ref name="kinsley137" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC&pg=PA205|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=205-206 }}</ref> Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the ''saguna''{{refn|group=note|representation with face and attributes)<ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gDmUToaeMJ0C |year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-564441-8|page=4}}</ref>}} Brahman is Vishnu,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mark Juergensmeyer |author2=Wade Clark Roof |title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4522-6656-5 |page=1335}}</ref> is Shiva,<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch |title=The Presence of Siva |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=171 }}</ref> or is Devi<ref>{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HzldwMHeS6IC |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=136 }}</ref> respectively, they are different names or aspects of the Brahman, and that the Atman (soul, self) within every living being is same or part of this ultimate, eternal Brahman.<ref>{{cite book|author=William K. Mahony |title=The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B1KR_kE5ZYoC |year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3579-3 |pages=13–14, 187 }}</ref>

P16459

Bureaucrats, Administrators

3,561

edits

Changes

Brahman (ब्रह्मन्) (view source)

Revision as of 15:47, 4 December 2018

Navigation menu

Search