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Line 302: − + − − ''Main article: Maya (illusion)'' − − Two different types of the non-dual Brahman-Atman are presented in the Upanishads, according to Mahadevan.<sup>[120]</sup> The one in which the non-dual Brahman-Atman is the all inclusive ground of the universe and another in which empirical, changing universe is a form of ''Maya'', often translated as "illusion". − − The Upanishads describe the universe, and the human experience, as an interplay of Purusha (the eternal, unchanging principles, consciousness) and Prakṛti (the temporary, changing material world, nature).<sup>[67]</sup> The former manifests itself as Ātman (Soul, Self), and the latter as Māyā. The Upanishads refer to the knowledge of ''Atman'' as "true knowledge" (''Vidya''), and the knowledge of ''Maya'' as "not true knowledge" (''Avidya'', Nescience, lack of awareness, lack of true knowledge).<sup>[68]</sup> − − In the Upanishads, Māyā is the perceived changing reality and it co-exists with Brahman which is the hidden true reality.<sup>[71][72]</sup> ''Maya'', or "illusion", is an important idea in the Upanishads, because the texts assert that in the human pursuit of blissful and liberating Self-knowledge, it is ''Maya'' which obscures, confuses and distracts an individual.<sup>[73][74]</sup> − −
→Brahman
Brahman and Atman are two concepts that are unique to Bharatiya Jnana siddhantas which are highly developed in the Upanishads. From the root cause Prkriti the world came into being. Paramatma is Nitya, Puratana, Shasvata (Eternal) devoid of the cycles of birth and death. The Sharira or body is subjected to death and birth but Atma residing in it continues to exist. Just like butter is evenly distributed in milk so also Paramatma is all-pervading in the world. Just like the sparks arise out of fire so also the beings take shape from the Paramatma. Such aspects which are explained in Upanishads have been widely discussed and elucidated in the Darshana shastras.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" />
Brahman and Atman are two concepts that are unique to Bharatiya Jnana siddhantas which are highly developed in the Upanishads. From the root cause Prkriti the world came into being. Paramatma is Nitya, Puratana, Shasvata (Eternal) devoid of the cycles of birth and death. The Sharira or body is subjected to death and birth but Atma residing in it continues to exist. Just like butter is evenly distributed in milk so also Paramatma is all-pervading in the world. Just like the sparks arise out of fire so also the beings take shape from the Paramatma. Such aspects which are explained in Upanishads have been widely discussed and elucidated in the Darshana shastras.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" />
===== '''Brahman''' =====
===== ब्रह्मन् ॥ Brahman =====
The word [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]] is used to represent the all pervading, ultimate reality without a second. While this is a principle of universal acceptance for all sects of Vedantins, there is a variation in these schools as to relationship between Brahman and Jivatma.
The word [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]] is used to represent the all pervading, ultimate reality without a second. While this is a principle of universal acceptance for all sects of Vedantins, there is a variation in these schools as to relationship between Brahman and Jivatma.
That this Nirguna Brahman is also referred by Omkara or Pranavanada is also well illustrated in the Upanishads. Kathopanishad states that<blockquote>सर्वे वेदा यत्पदमामनन्ति तपाँसि सर्वाणि च यद्वदन्ति । यदिच्छन्तो ब्रह्मचर्यं चरन्ति तत्ते पदँ संग्रहेण ब्रवीम्योमित्येतत् ॥ १५ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>एतद्ध्येवाक्षरं ब्रह्म एतद्ध्येवाक्षरं परम् । एतद्ध्येवाक्षरं ज्ञात्वा यो यदिच्छति तस्य तत् ॥ १६ ॥ (Kath. Upan. 1.2.15)<ref>Kathopanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80 Adhyaya 1 Valli 2])</ref></blockquote>Meaning : That which all the Vedas declare, that which all austerities utter, That desiring which they lead the life of Brahmacharya, That Word I tell thee briefly : it is Aum. That word is even Brahman; that Word is even the Supreme.<ref name=":022" />
That this Nirguna Brahman is also referred by Omkara or Pranavanada is also well illustrated in the Upanishads. Kathopanishad states that<blockquote>सर्वे वेदा यत्पदमामनन्ति तपाँसि सर्वाणि च यद्वदन्ति । यदिच्छन्तो ब्रह्मचर्यं चरन्ति तत्ते पदँ संग्रहेण ब्रवीम्योमित्येतत् ॥ १५ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>एतद्ध्येवाक्षरं ब्रह्म एतद्ध्येवाक्षरं परम् । एतद्ध्येवाक्षरं ज्ञात्वा यो यदिच्छति तस्य तत् ॥ १६ ॥ (Kath. Upan. 1.2.15)<ref>Kathopanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80 Adhyaya 1 Valli 2])</ref></blockquote>Meaning : That which all the Vedas declare, that which all austerities utter, That desiring which they lead the life of Brahmacharya, That Word I tell thee briefly : it is Aum. That word is even Brahman; that Word is even the Supreme.<ref name=":022" />
===== '''Atman, The Saguna Representation of Brahman''' =====
===== आत्मन् ॥ Atman, The Saguna Representation of Brahman =====
The next important concept is that of Saguna Brahman, also Supreme like the Nirguna Brahman, except that here there are a few limiting adjuncts (name, form etc), called variously as Atman, Jivatma, Inner Self, Self, Consciousness etc. The Individual Self, Atman, is the internal ruler, the that immortal part of a visible entity, which includes all living beings including humans, animals and trees. The discussion about Brahman being gross and subtle is raised by Satyakama as explained in the Prashnopanishad. <blockquote>एतद्वै सत्यकाम परं चापरं च ब्रह्म यदोङ्कारः । (Pras. Upan. 5.2)<ref>Prashnopanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%83 Prashna 5])</ref></blockquote>Meaning : Verily, O Satyakama, this Omkara is the Supreme and the lower Brahman.<ref name=":022" />
The next important concept is that of Saguna Brahman, also Supreme like the Nirguna Brahman, except that here there are a few limiting adjuncts (name, form etc), called variously as Atman, Jivatma, Inner Self, Self, Consciousness etc. The Individual Self, Atman, is the internal ruler, the that immortal part of a visible entity, which includes all living beings including humans, animals and trees. The discussion about Brahman being gross and subtle is raised by Satyakama as explained in the Prashnopanishad. <blockquote>एतद्वै सत्यकाम परं चापरं च ब्रह्म यदोङ्कारः । (Pras. Upan. 5.2)<ref>Prashnopanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%83 Prashna 5])</ref></blockquote>Meaning : Verily, O Satyakama, this Omkara is the Supreme and the lower Brahman.<ref name=":022" />
Brhdaranyaka Upanishad also says the following<blockquote>द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चैवामूर्तं च मर्त्यं चामृतं च स्थितं च यच्च सच्च त्यच्च ॥ १ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 2.3.1)<ref>Brhdaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_2p Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>Meaning : There are two states of Brahman, मूर्तं । gross (with form, body and organs) and अमूर्तं । subtle (formless), mortal (मर्त्यं) and immortal (अमृतं), finite and infinite, existent and beyond (existence).<ref>Swami Madhavananda, (1950). ''[https://archive.org/details/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda/page/n356 The Brhdaranyaka Upanishad with the commentary of Sankaracharya.]'' Mayavati: Avaita Ashrama</ref>
Brhdaranyaka Upanishad also says the following about the existence of two forms of Brahman - the Sat and Asat forms.<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे मूर्तं चैवामूर्तं च मर्त्यं चामृतं च स्थितं च यच्च सच्च त्यच्च ॥ १ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 2.3.1)<ref>Brhdaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_2p Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>Meaning : There are two states of Brahman, मूर्तं । gross (with form, body and organs) and अमूर्तं । subtle (formless), mortal (मर्त्यं) and immortal (अमृतं), finite and infinite, existent and beyond (existence).<ref>Swami Madhavananda, (1950). ''[https://archive.org/details/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda/page/n356 The Brhdaranyaka Upanishad with the commentary of Sankaracharya.]'' Mayavati: Avaita Ashrama</ref>
This second, lower, gross, mortal, finite, existent Brahman is not "another" but is Brahman conditioned - therefore limited, manifesting and is thus Saguna with Attributes. The subtle formless Brahman has already been described as Nirguna Brahman.<blockquote>यो दिवि तिष्ठन्दिवोऽन्तरो यं द्यौर्न वेद यस्य द्यौः शरीरं यो दिवमन्तरो यमयत्य् एष त आत्माऽन्तर्याम्यमृतः ॥ ८ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 3.7.8)<ref>Brhdaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_3p Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>
This second, lower, gross, mortal, finite, existent Brahman is not "another" but is Brahman conditioned - therefore limited, manifesting and is thus Saguna with Attributes. The subtle formless Brahman has already been described as Nirguna Brahman.<blockquote>यो दिवि तिष्ठन्दिवोऽन्तरो यं द्यौर्न वेद यस्य द्यौः शरीरं यो दिवमन्तरो यमयत्य् एष त आत्माऽन्तर्याम्यमृतः ॥ ८ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 3.7.8)<ref>Brhdaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_3p Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>
''Atman'' is the predominantly discussed topic in the Upanishads, but they express two distinct, somewhat divergent themes. Some state that Brahman (Highest Reality, Universal Principle, Being-Consciousness-Bliss) is identical with ''Atman (Advaita siddhanta)'', while others state ''Atman'' is part of Brahman but not identical (Visishtadvaita and Dvaita siddhantas of Vedanta). This ancient debate flowered into various dual, non-dual theories in Hinduism. More about these aspects are discussed under the heading [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]].
==== Unity of Atman and Brahman ====
''Atman'' is the predominantly discussed topic in the Upanishads, but they express two distinct, somewhat divergent themes. Some state that Brahman (Highest Reality, Universal Principle, Being-Consciousness-Bliss) is identical with ''Atman (Advaita siddhanta)'', while others state ''Atman'' is part of Brahman but not identical (Visishtadvaita and Dvaita siddhantas of Vedanta). This ancient debate flowered into various dual, non-dual theories in Hinduism. More about these aspects are discussed under the heading [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]].
==== Manas ====
That Brahman and Atman are one and the same was proposed in Chandogya Upanishads mahavakyas. One of them being the following<blockquote>स य एषोऽणिमैतदात्म्यमिदँ सर्वं तत्सत्यँ स आत्मा '''तत्त्वमसि''' श्वेतकेतो (Chand. Upan. 6.8.7)</blockquote>That which is this subtle essense, all this has got That as the Self, That is Truth, That is Self. You are That O! Svetaketu.<ref>Swami Gambhirananda. (1983) ''Chandogya Upanishad With the Commentary of Sri Sankaracharya.'' Calcutta : Advaita Ashrama</ref>
In the Mandukya Upanishad another mahavakya stresses this point<blockquote>सर्वं ह्येतद् ब्रह्मा'''यमात्मा ब्रह्म''' सोऽयमात्मा चतुष्पात् ॥ २ ॥ (Mand. Upan. 2)<ref>Mandukya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D 12 Mantras])</ref></blockquote>All this is surely Brahman. This Self is Brahman. The Self, such as It is, is possessed of four quarters.<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) ''[https://archive.org/details/EightUpanishadsWithSankarabhashyamSwamiGambhiranandaVol11966/page/n183 Eight Upanishads, Volume 2 (Aitareya, Mundaka, Mandukya, Prashna)]'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama</ref>
==== मनस् ॥ Manas ====
Manas (not equivalent to Mind but used in that sense) is also called as Prajna, Chitta, Samkalpa which is engaged in a Vrtti (वृत्तिः) or states of existence (Yoga Darshana describes 6 such states). The thinking nature of man has been understood as the very essence of human beings since ancient times in India. Serious searches for unravelling the mystery of Manas and its impacts on life proved decisive in deepening the philosophical thoughts of human race making definite impacts upon the socio-cultural standards of life. Studies of Manas have contributed much in the fields of arts and science. It is a matter of fact that all philosophical thoughts and knowledge systems in India spring out explicitly or implicitly from the Vedas. The Upanishads being an integral part of Vedas represent the philosophical zenith of the Vedic thoughts. The discussions on Manas also are dense and deep in the Upanishads.
Manas (not equivalent to Mind but used in that sense) is also called as Prajna, Chitta, Samkalpa which is engaged in a Vrtti (वृत्तिः) or states of existence (Yoga Darshana describes 6 such states). The thinking nature of man has been understood as the very essence of human beings since ancient times in India. Serious searches for unravelling the mystery of Manas and its impacts on life proved decisive in deepening the philosophical thoughts of human race making definite impacts upon the socio-cultural standards of life. Studies of Manas have contributed much in the fields of arts and science. It is a matter of fact that all philosophical thoughts and knowledge systems in India spring out explicitly or implicitly from the Vedas. The Upanishads being an integral part of Vedas represent the philosophical zenith of the Vedic thoughts. The discussions on Manas also are dense and deep in the Upanishads.
That Manas is not consciousness but is a subtle form of matter like the body is expounded in the Chandogya Upanishad. Further it says that Anna consumed is sorted in three ways post digestion. The grossest part becomes faeces; the middle component becomes flesh; the subtle ingredient becomes the mind.
That Manas is not consciousness but is a subtle form of matter like the body is expounded in the Chandogya Upanishad. Further it says that Anna consumed is sorted in three ways post digestion. The grossest part becomes faeces; the middle component becomes flesh; the subtle ingredient becomes the mind.
The rituals of the Vedas, purify the Manas, discipline his Kama pravrtti and helps a Jiva to ascend in the path of attaining Brahmajnana.<ref name=":022" />
The rituals of the Vedas, purify the Manas, discipline his Kama pravrtti and helps a Jiva to ascend in the path of attaining Brahmajnana.<ref name=":022" />
==== माया ॥ Illusion ====
Two different types of the non-dual Brahman-Atman are presented in the Upanishads, according to Mahadevan.<sup>[120]</sup> The one in which the non-dual Brahman-Atman is the all inclusive ground of the universe and another in which empirical, changing universe is a form of ''Maya'', often translated as "illusion".
The Upanishads describe the universe, and the human experience, as an interplay of Purusha (the eternal, unchanging principles, consciousness) and Prakṛti (the temporary, changing material world, nature).<sup>[67]</sup> The former manifests itself as Ātman (Soul, Self), and the latter as Māyā. The Upanishads refer to the knowledge of ''Atman'' as "true knowledge" (''Vidya''), and the knowledge of ''Maya'' as "not true knowledge" (''Avidya'', Nescience, lack of awareness, lack of true knowledge).<sup>[68]</sup>
In the Upanishads, Māyā is the perceived changing reality and it co-exists with Brahman which is the hidden true reality.<sup>[71][72]</sup> ''Maya'', or "illusion", is an important idea in the Upanishads, because the texts assert that in the human pursuit of blissful and liberating Self-knowledge, it is ''Maya'' which obscures, confuses and distracts an individual.<sup>[73][74]</sup>
===उपनिषद्वैशिष्ट्यम् ॥ Vaisishtyam ===
===उपनिषद्वैशिष्ट्यम् ॥ Vaisishtyam ===
Although all Upanishads proclaim that the goal of human life, embroiled in the flow of samsara, is to attain Jnana that leads to Moksha, the ultimate paramapurushartha, each of the upanishads have their own special features about their siddhantas as follows <ref name=":22" />
Although all Upanishads proclaim that the goal of human life, embroiled in the flow of samsara, is to attain Jnana that leads to Moksha, the ultimate paramapurushartha, each of the upanishads have their own special features about their siddhantas as follows <ref name=":22" />
|Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7
|Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7
|"Knowledge is Brahman"
|"Knowledge is Brahman"
|}'''Illusion'''
|}'''Schools of Vedanta'''
'''Schools of Vedanta'''
''Main article: Vedanta''
''Main article: Vedanta''