Changes

==Samkhya (3 Pramanas)==

==Samkhya (3 Pramanas)==

Samkhya and Yoga concepts of pramana are different and original from the others such as those given by Nyaya. Samkhya admits 3 Pramanas and their lakshanas are discussed in the sutras as given below<blockquote>यत् संबद्धं सत् तदाकारोल्लेखि विज्ञानं तत् प्रत्यक्षं । सांख्यसूत्र-१.८९ । (प्रत्यक्षलक्षणं)<ref name=":3">Samkhya [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF Sutras]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>yat saṁbaddhaṁ sat tadākārōllēkhi vijñānaṁ tat pratyakṣaṁ । sāṁkhyasūtra-1.89 । (pratyakṣalakṣaṇaṁ)</blockquote>Pratyaksha (perception) is that discernment which, being in conjunction (with the thing perceived), portrays the form just as it is perceived.<blockquote>प्रतिबन्धदृशः प्रतिबद्धज्ञानमनुमानं । सांख्यसूत्र-१.१०० । (अनुमान लक्षणं)<ref name=":3" /></blockquote><blockquote>pratibandhadr̥śaḥ pratibaddhajñānamanumānaṁ । sāṁkhyasūtra-1.100 । (anumāna lakṣaṇaṁ)</blockquote>The knowledge of the connected object (e.g., fire), through perception of the connecting aspect (e.g., of fire with smoke), is Anumana pramana (Inference).<blockquote>आप्तोपदेशः शब्दः । सांख्यसूत्र-१.१०१ । (शब्द लक्षणं)<ref name=":3" /></blockquote><blockquote>āptōpadēśaḥ śabdaḥ । sāṁkhyasūtra-1.101 । (śabda lakṣaṇaṁ)</blockquote>Aptopadesa (the specific words or testimony) is a declaration by one worthy (to be believed) and constitutes Shabda Pramana (Verbal Testimony).   

Samkhya and Yoga concepts of pramana are different and original from the others such as those given by Nyaya. Samkhya admits 3 Pramanas and their lakshanas are discussed in the sutras as given below.

 

<blockquote>यत् संबद्धं सत् तदाकारोल्लेखि विज्ञानं तत् प्रत्यक्षं । सांख्यसूत्र-१.८९ । (प्रत्यक्षलक्षणं)<ref name=":3">Samkhya [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF Sutras]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>yat saṁbaddhaṁ sat tadākārōllēkhi vijñānaṁ tat pratyakṣaṁ । sāṁkhyasūtra-1.89 । (pratyakṣalakṣaṇaṁ)</blockquote>Pratyaksha (perception) is that discernment which, being in conjunction (with the thing perceived), portrays the form just as it is perceived.

 

<blockquote>प्रतिबन्धदृशः प्रतिबद्धज्ञानमनुमानं । सांख्यसूत्र-१.१०० । (अनुमान लक्षणं)<ref name=":3" /></blockquote><blockquote>pratibandhadr̥śaḥ pratibaddhajñānamanumānaṁ । sāṁkhyasūtra-1.100 । (anumāna lakṣaṇaṁ)</blockquote>The knowledge of the connected object (e.g., fire), through perception of the connecting aspect (e.g., of fire with smoke), is Anumana pramana (Inference).

 

<blockquote>आप्तोपदेशः शब्दः । सांख्यसूत्र-१.१०१ । (शब्द लक्षणं)<ref name=":3" /></blockquote><blockquote>āptōpadēśaḥ śabdaḥ । sāṁkhyasūtra-1.101 । (śabda lakṣaṇaṁ)</blockquote>Aptopadesa (the specific words or testimony) is a declaration by one worthy (to be believed) and constitutes Shabda Pramana (Verbal Testimony).

 

'''Samkhya Karika'''  

Samkhya Karikas also explain the 3 pramanas accepted as seen in the Karika below.<ref name=":4">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft/page/n117 The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref><blockquote>दृष्टमनुमानमाप्तवचनं च सर्वप्रमाणसिद्धत्वात् । त्रिविधं प्रमाणमिष्टं प्रमेयसिद्धि: प्रमाणाद्धि ॥ ४ ॥ (Samk. Kari. 4)<ref name=":5">Samkhya [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE Karikas]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>dr̥ṣṭamanumānamāptavacanaṁ ca sarvapramāṇasiddhatvāt । trividhaṁ pramāṇamiṣṭaṁ prameyasiddhi: pramāṇāddhi ॥ 4 ॥ (Samk. Dars. 4)</blockquote>Pramana or proof being established are intended to be three-fold. From these the Prameya (something to be proved) is established.

Samkhya Karikas also explain the 3 pramanas accepted as seen in the Karika below.<ref name=":4">Sinha, Nandalal (1915) ''[https://archive.org/details/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft/page/n117 The Sacred Books of the Hindus : The Samkhya Philosophy. (Volume XI).]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref><blockquote>दृष्टमनुमानमाप्तवचनं च सर्वप्रमाणसिद्धत्वात् । त्रिविधं प्रमाणमिष्टं प्रमेयसिद्धि: प्रमाणाद्धि ॥ ४ ॥ (Samk. Kari. 4)<ref name=":5">Samkhya [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE Karikas]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>dr̥ṣṭamanumānamāptavacanaṁ ca sarvapramāṇasiddhatvāt । trividhaṁ pramāṇamiṣṭaṁ prameyasiddhi: pramāṇāddhi ॥ 4 ॥ (Samk. Dars. 4)</blockquote>Pramana or proof being established are intended to be three-fold. From these the Prameya (something to be proved) is established.

*आप्तवचनम्  || aptavacana (word/testimony of reliable sources) Vachana being शब्दप्रमाणाः । sabda-pramana.  

*आप्तवचनम्  || aptavacana (word/testimony of reliable sources) Vachana being शब्दप्रमाणाः । sabda-pramana.  

==Yoga (3 Pramanas)==

==Yoga (3 Pramanas)==

Yoga Darshana similar to Samkhya accepts 3 Pramanas as given by Patanjali with the explanation by Vyasa.<blockquote>प्रत्यक्षानुमानागमाः प्रमाणानि ॥७॥ pratyakṣānumānāgamāḥ pramāṇāni ॥7॥ (Yoga. Sutr. 1.7)<ref name=":0">Yoga Sutras with Vyasa Bhasya ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_-_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Samadhi Pada 1])</ref></blockquote>Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference) and Agama (Verbal testimony) are Pramanas.

Yoga Darshana similar to Samkhya accepts 3 Pramanas as given by Patanjali, the composer of Yogasutras, and the explanation by Vyasa Bhashya. Clearly all three pramanas are mentioned in one sutra (1.7).

====Vyasa Bhasya====

 

<blockquote>इन्द्रियप्रणालिकया चित्तस्य बाह्यवस्तूपरागात्तद्विषया सामान्यविशेषात्मनोऽर्थस्य विशेषावधारणप्रधाना वृत्तिः प्रत्यक्षं प्रमाणम् । फलमविशिष्टः पौरुषेयश्चित्तवृत्तिबोधः ।</blockquote><blockquote>indriyapraṇālikayā cittasya bāhyavastūparāgāttadviṣayā sāmānyaviśēṣātmanō'rthasya viśēṣāvadhāraṇapradhānā vr̥ttiḥ pratyakṣaṁ pramāṇam । phalamaviśiṣṭaḥ pauruṣēyaścittavr̥ttibōdhaḥ ।</blockquote><blockquote>अनुमेयस्य तुल्यजातीयेष्वनुवृत्तो भिन्नजातीयेभ्यो व्यावृत्तः सम्बन्धो यस्तद्विषया सामान्यावधारणप्रधाना वृत्तिरनुमानम् । यथा देशान्तरप्राप्तेर्गतिमच्चन्द्रतारकं चैत्रवत्, विन्ध्यश्चाप्राप्तिरगतिः ।</blockquote><blockquote>anumēyasya tulyajātīyēṣvanuvr̥ttō bhinnajātīyēbhyō vyāvr̥ttaḥ sambandhō yastadviṣayā sāmānyāvadhāraṇapradhānā vr̥ttiranumānam । yathā dēśāntaraprāptērgatimaccandratārakaṁ caitravat, vindhyaścāprāptiragatiḥ ।</blockquote><blockquote>आप्तेन दृष्टोऽनुमितः वा अर्थः परत्र स्वबोधसङ्क्रान्तये शब्देनोपदिश्यते । शब्दात्तदर्थविषया वृत्तिः श्रोतुरागमः । यस्याश्रद्धेयार्थो वक्ता न दृष्टानुमितार्थः स आगमः प्लवते । (Vyay. Bhas. for Yoga. Sutr. 1.7)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>āptēna dr̥ṣṭō'numitaḥ vā arthaḥ paratra svabōdhasaṅkrāntayē śabdēnōpadiśyatē । śabdāttadarthaviṣayā vr̥ttiḥ śrōturāgamaḥ । yasyāśraddhēyārthō vaktā na dr̥ṣṭānumitārthaḥ sa āgamaḥ plavatē । (Vyay. Bhas. for Yoga. Sutr. 1.7)</blockquote>Summarizing the Vyasa Bhashya given above an object naturally has generic (सामान्या) and specific (विशेषः) attributes. The Pratyaksha pramama considers the specific aspect of the object. Chitta when affected by the external object through the path of sense-organs gives rise to a function with the specific attribute of that object. Such a function is called Pratyaksha pramana. The effect of Pratyaksha pramana ultimately is that the Purusha cognises the function of Chitta (चित्तवृत्तिबोधः).<ref name=":6">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1907) The Yoga Darsana. The Sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa. Translated into English with Notes ([https://archive.org/details/YogaSutrasOfPatanjaliBhashyaOfVyasaGanganathaJha1907/page/n29 Pada 1])</ref>

<blockquote>प्रत्यक्षानुमानागमाः प्रमाणानि ॥७॥ pratyakṣānumānāgamāḥ pramāṇāni ॥7॥ (Yoga. Sutr. 1.7)<ref name=":0">Yoga Sutras with Vyasa Bhasya ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_-_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Samadhi Pada 1])</ref></blockquote>Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference) and Agama (Verbal testimony) are Pramanas.

 

'''Vyasa Bhasya'''<blockquote>इन्द्रियप्रणालिकया चित्तस्य बाह्यवस्तूपरागात्तद्विषया सामान्यविशेषात्मनोऽर्थस्य विशेषावधारणप्रधाना वृत्तिः प्रत्यक्षं प्रमाणम् । फलमविशिष्टः पौरुषेयश्चित्तवृत्तिबोधः ।</blockquote><blockquote>indriyapraṇālikayā cittasya bāhyavastūparāgāttadviṣayā sāmānyaviśēṣātmanō'rthasya viśēṣāvadhāraṇapradhānā vr̥ttiḥ pratyakṣaṁ pramāṇam । phalamaviśiṣṭaḥ pauruṣēyaścittavr̥ttibōdhaḥ ।</blockquote><blockquote>अनुमेयस्य तुल्यजातीयेष्वनुवृत्तो भिन्नजातीयेभ्यो व्यावृत्तः सम्बन्धो यस्तद्विषया सामान्यावधारणप्रधाना वृत्तिरनुमानम् । यथा देशान्तरप्राप्तेर्गतिमच्चन्द्रतारकं चैत्रवत्, विन्ध्यश्चाप्राप्तिरगतिः ।</blockquote><blockquote>anumēyasya tulyajātīyēṣvanuvr̥ttō bhinnajātīyēbhyō vyāvr̥ttaḥ sambandhō yastadviṣayā sāmānyāvadhāraṇapradhānā vr̥ttiranumānam । yathā dēśāntaraprāptērgatimaccandratārakaṁ caitravat, vindhyaścāprāptiragatiḥ ।</blockquote><blockquote>आप्तेन दृष्टोऽनुमितः वा अर्थः परत्र स्वबोधसङ्क्रान्तये शब्देनोपदिश्यते । शब्दात्तदर्थविषया वृत्तिः श्रोतुरागमः । यस्याश्रद्धेयार्थो वक्ता न दृष्टानुमितार्थः स आगमः प्लवते । (Vyay. Bhas. for Yoga. Sutr. 1.7)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>āptēna dr̥ṣṭō'numitaḥ vā arthaḥ paratra svabōdhasaṅkrāntayē śabdēnōpadiśyatē । śabdāttadarthaviṣayā vr̥ttiḥ śrōturāgamaḥ । yasyāśraddhēyārthō vaktā na dr̥ṣṭānumitārthaḥ sa āgamaḥ plavatē । (Vyay. Bhas. for Yoga. Sutr. 1.7)</blockquote>Summarizing the Vyasa Bhashya given above, an object naturally has generic (सामान्या) and specific (विशेषः) attributes. The Pratyaksha pramama considers the specific aspect of the object. Chitta when affected by the external object through the path of sense-organs gives rise to a function with the specific attribute of that object. Such a function is called Pratyaksha pramana. The effect of Pratyaksha pramana ultimately is that the Purusha cognises the function of Chitta (चित्तवृत्तिबोधः).<ref name=":6">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1907) The Yoga Darsana. The Sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa. Translated into English with Notes ([https://archive.org/details/YogaSutrasOfPatanjaliBhashyaOfVyasaGanganathaJha1907/page/n29 Pada 1])</ref>

Further Anumana or Inference is explained. There is a certain relationship which is common (अनुवृत्तिः) to all homogenous objects (तुल्यजातीयेषु) and dissociated (व्यावृत्तः) from the heterogenous ones (भिन्नजातीयेषु). Anumana is that function having the above said relationship for its object concerned chiefly with the ascertainment (अवधारणप्रधाना) of its generic attribute. For e.g. a person, say Chaitra, changes his position only through movement. Similarly when we see planets changing their positions we infer that there is movement, just like in Chaitra, which cannot be perceived. On the other hand, Vidhya mountain does not change its position so we infer that there is no movement.<ref name=":6" />

Further Anumana or Inference is explained. There is a certain relationship which is common (अनुवृत्तिः) to all homogenous objects (तुल्यजातीयेषु) and dissociated (व्यावृत्तः) from the heterogenous ones (भिन्नजातीयेषु). Anumana is that function having the above said relationship for its object concerned chiefly with the ascertainment (अवधारणप्रधाना) of its generic attribute. For e.g. a person, say Chaitra, changes his position only through movement. Similarly when we see planets changing their positions we infer that there is movement, just like in Chaitra, which cannot be perceived. On the other hand, Vidhya mountain does not change its position so we infer that there is no movement.<ref name=":6" />

A certain object, having been either perceived or inferred by an authoritative person, is verbally expressed for the sake of transferring that cognition to another person. Vrtti (function of the object) generated by verbal transfer of cognition is Agama for the listener. That Agama given by an untrustworthy person, who has neither seen nor inferred an object fails.<ref name=":6" />

A certain object, having been either perceived or inferred by an authoritative person, is verbally expressed for the sake of transferring that cognition to another person. Vrtti (function of the object) generated by verbal transfer of cognition is Agama for the listener. That Agama given by an untrustworthy person, who has neither seen nor inferred an object fails.<ref name=":6" />

It is to be noted that while Samkhya and other darshanas use the word Shabda Pramana, Yoga uses 'Agama'. Yoga holds that pramana is the function of chitta. Samkhya considers knowledge as belonging to buddhi only, which though essentially is insentient, acts like a sentient entity when the sentience of Purusha is reflected upon it. Both these systems offer an original definition of pramana as the function of the buddhi or chitta.

It is to be noted that while Samkhya and other darshanas use the word Shabda Pramana, Yoga uses 'Agama'. Yoga holds that pramana is the function of chitta (the state of mind). Samkhya considers knowledge as belonging to buddhi only, which though essentially is insentient, acts like a sentient entity when the sentience of Purusha is reflected upon it. Both these systems offer an original definition of pramana as the function of the buddhi or chitta.

==Vaiseshika (3 Pramanas)==

==Vaiseshika (3 Pramanas)==

Vaiseshika Darshana discusses pramanas indirectly observed through the following compilation of sutras. Like Samkhya Vaiseshika also accepts Pratyaksha, Anumana and Shabda Pramana (called here as Amnaya) <blockquote>तद्वचनादाम्नायस्य प्रामाण्यम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.३ ।<ref name=":7" /></blockquote><blockquote>tadvacanādāmnāyasya prāmāṇyam । vaiśēṣika-1,1.3 ।</blockquote>The authoritativeness of the Veda (arises from its) being the word of the supreme being.<ref name=":8">Pt. Nandalal Sinha. (1923) ''[https://archive.org/details/thevaiasesikasut00kanauoft/page/6 The Vaiseshika Sutras of Kanada.]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref> The words तद्वचनाद्। tadvachanād means being the composition of Him, Ishvara; आम्नायस्य। of the Veda ([[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]] are also called Amnaya) the pramanyam or proof is established.<blockquote>अस्येदं कार्यं कारणं संयोगि विरोधि समवायि चेति लैङ्गिकम् । वैशेषिक-९,२.१ ।<ref name=":7" /></blockquote><blockquote>asyēdaṁ kāryaṁ kāraṇaṁ saṁyōgi virōdhi samavāyi cēti laiṅgikam । vaiśēṣika-9,2.1 ।</blockquote>It is the effect or cause of, conjunct with, contradictory to, or combined in, this (cognition produced by the mark of inference). लैङ्गिकम् । Laigikam means produced from Linga or mark. This mark is the medium or instrument of Anumana (inferential cognition) of the Lingi or object (connected to that mark).(Page 279 of Reference <ref name=":8" />)<blockquote>अस्येदं कार्य कारणसम्बन्धश्चावयवाद्भवति । वैशेषिक-९,२.२ ।</blockquote><blockquote>asyēdaṁ kārya kāraṇasambandhaścāvayavādbhavati । vaiśēṣika-9,2.2 ।</blockquote>This sutra explains the relationship between Inference and the law of cause and effect (कार्य कारणसम्बन्ध).<blockquote>एतेन शाब्दं व्याख्यातम् । वैशेषिक-९,२.३ ।</blockquote><blockquote>ētēna śābdaṁ vyākhyātam । vaiśēṣika-9,2.3 ।</blockquote>Hereby verbal cognition is explained. (Page 282 of Reference <ref name=":8" />)  <blockquote>हेतुरपदेशो लिङ्गं प्रमाणं करणमित्यनर्थान्तरम् । वैशेषिक-९,२.४ । (Vais. Sutr. 9.2.12)<ref name=":7">Vaiseshika [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Sutras]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>hēturapadēśō liṅgaṁ pramāṇaṁ karaṇamityanarthāntaram । vaiśēṣika-9,2.4 । (Vais. Sutr. 9.2.12)</blockquote>Hetu (हेतुः । reason), Apadesha (अपदेशः । sound or word), Lingam (लिङ्गम् । mark), Pramana (प्रमाणम् । proof), Karana (करणम् । instrument) these are not antonyms. (Page 286 of Reference <ref name=":8" />)

Vaiseshika Darshana discusses pramanas indirectly observed through the following compilation of sutras. Like Samkhya Vaiseshika also accepts Pratyaksha, Anumana and Shabda Pramana (called here as Amnaya).

 

<blockquote>तद्वचनादाम्नायस्य प्रामाण्यम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.३ ।<ref name=":7" /></blockquote><blockquote>tadvacanādāmnāyasya prāmāṇyam । vaiśēṣika-1,1.3 ।</blockquote>The authoritativeness of the Veda (arises from its) being the word of the supreme being.<ref name=":8">Pt. Nandalal Sinha. (1923) ''[https://archive.org/details/thevaiasesikasut00kanauoft/page/6 The Vaiseshika Sutras of Kanada.]'' Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref> The words तद्वचनाद्। tadvachanād means being the composition of Him, Ishvara; आम्नायस्य। of the Veda ([[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]] are also called Amnaya) the pramanyam or proof is established.

 

<blockquote>अस्येदं कार्यं कारणं संयोगि विरोधि समवायि चेति लैङ्गिकम् । वैशेषिक-९,२.१ ।<ref name=":7" /></blockquote><blockquote>asyēdaṁ kāryaṁ kāraṇaṁ saṁyōgi virōdhi samavāyi cēti laiṅgikam । vaiśēṣika-9,2.1 ।</blockquote>It is the effect or cause of, conjunct with, contradictory to, or combined in, this (cognition produced by the mark of inference). लैङ्गिकम् । Laingikam means produced from Linga or mark. This mark is the medium or instrument of Anumana (inferential cognition) of the Lingi or object (connected to that mark).(Page 279 of Reference <ref name=":8" />)<blockquote>अस्येदं कार्य कारणसम्बन्धश्चावयवाद्भवति । वैशेषिक-९,२.२ ।</blockquote><blockquote>asyēdaṁ kārya kāraṇasambandhaścāvayavādbhavati । vaiśēṣika-9,2.2 ।</blockquote>This sutra explains the relationship between Inference and the law of cause and effect (कार्य कारणसम्बन्ध).<blockquote>एतेन शाब्दं व्याख्यातम् । वैशेषिक-९,२.३ । ētēna śābdaṁ vyākhyātam । vaiśēṣika-9,2.3 ।</blockquote>Hereby verbal cognition is explained. (Page 282 of Reference <ref name=":8" />)  <blockquote>हेतुरपदेशो लिङ्गं प्रमाणं करणमित्यनर्थान्तरम् । वैशेषिक-९,२.४ । (Vais. Sutr. 9.2.12)<ref name=":7">Vaiseshika [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Sutras]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>hēturapadēśō liṅgaṁ pramāṇaṁ karaṇamityanarthāntaram । vaiśēṣika-9,2.4 । (Vais. Sutr. 9.2.12)</blockquote>Hetu (हेतुः । reason), Apadesha (अपदेशः । sound or word), Lingam (लिङ्गम् । mark), Pramana (प्रमाणम् । proof), Karana (करणम् । instrument) these are not antonyms. (Page 286 of Reference <ref name=":8" />)

==Nyaya (4 Pramanas)==

==Nyaya (4 Pramanas)==

According to Nyaya darshana, pramana is the unique operative cause (karana) of pramaa or right knowledge.  It is the complex of specific conditions or causes (karana), other than the subject and the object, which invariably produces valid knowledge.<blockquote>प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि ।। ३ ।। {प्रमाणौद्देशसूत्रम्}<ref name=":9">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1, Ahnika 1])</ref> pratyakṣānumānopamānaśabdāḥ pramāṇāni ।। 3 ।। {pramāṇauddeśasūtram} </blockquote>Pramana is of four kinds as per Nyaya. Apart from the three pramanas accepted by Samkhya, Yoga and Vaiseshika, Nyaya accepts the fourth one Upamana. All the four pramanas are explicitly defined by Gautama in his Nyayasutras.<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षोत्पन्नं ज्ञानं अव्यपदेश्यं अव्यभिचारि व्यवसायात्मकं प्रत्यक्षम्।।४।। {प्रत्यक्षलक्षणम्} indriyārthasannikarṣotpannaṁ jñānaṁ avyapadeśyaṁ avyabhicāri vyavasāyātmakaṁ pratyakṣam।।4।। {pratyakṣalakṣaṇam}</blockquote><blockquote>अथ तत्पूर्वकं त्रिविधं अनुमानं पूर्ववत्शेषवत्सामान्यतोदृष्टं च।।५।। {अनुमानलक्षणम्} atha tatpūrvakaṁ trividhaṁ anumānaṁ pūrvavatśeṣavatsāmānyatodr̥ṣṭaṁ ca।।5।। {anumānalakṣaṇam}</blockquote><blockquote>प्रसिद्धसाधर्म्यात्साध्यसाधनं उपमानम् ।।६।। {उपमानलक्षणम्} prasiddhasādharmyātsādhyasādhanaṁ upamānam ।।6।। {upamānalakṣaṇam}</blockquote><blockquote>आप्तोपदेशः शब्दः ।।७।। {शब्दलक्षणम्} āptopadeśaḥ śabdaḥ ।।7।। {śabdalakṣaṇam}</blockquote>All these are dealt with in detail in [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]].

According to Nyaya darshana, pramana is the unique operative cause (karana) of pramaa or right knowledge.  It is the complex of specific conditions or causes (karana), other than the subject and the object, which invariably produces valid knowledge.<blockquote>प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि ।। ३ ।। {प्रमाणौद्देशसूत्रम्}<ref name=":9">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1, Ahnika 1])</ref> pratyakṣānumānopamānaśabdāḥ pramāṇāni ।। 3 ।। {pramāṇauddeśasūtram} </blockquote>Pramana is of four kinds as per Nyaya. Apart from the three pramanas accepted by Samkhya, Yoga and Vaiseshika, Nyaya accepts the fourth one Upamana. All the four pramanas are explicitly defined by Gautama in his Nyayasutras.<ref name=":9" /><blockquote>इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षोत्पन्नं ज्ञानं अव्यपदेश्यं अव्यभिचारि व्यवसायात्मकं प्रत्यक्षम्।।४।। {प्रत्यक्षलक्षणम्} indriyārthasannikarṣotpannaṁ jñānaṁ avyapadeśyaṁ avyabhicāri vyavasāyātmakaṁ pratyakṣam।।4।। {pratyakṣalakṣaṇam}</blockquote><blockquote>अथ तत्पूर्वकं त्रिविधं अनुमानं पूर्ववत्शेषवत्सामान्यतोदृष्टं च।।५।। {अनुमानलक्षणम्} atha tatpūrvakaṁ trividhaṁ anumānaṁ pūrvavatśeṣavatsāmānyatodr̥ṣṭaṁ ca।।5।। {anumānalakṣaṇam}</blockquote><blockquote>प्रसिद्धसाधर्म्यात्साध्यसाधनं उपमानम् ।।६।। {उपमानलक्षणम्} prasiddhasādharmyātsādhyasādhanaṁ upamānam ।।6।। {upamānalakṣaṇam}</blockquote><blockquote>आप्तोपदेशः शब्दः ।।७।। {शब्दलक्षणम्} āptopadeśaḥ śabdaḥ ।।7।। {śabdalakṣaṇam}</blockquote>All these are dealt with in detail in [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]].

==Purva Mimamsa (5 Pramanas) ==

==Purva Mimamsa (6 Pramanas) ==

Jaimini's Mimamsa sutras firmly affirm that Vedas are the source of Dharma and explain in detail the pramanatva of Vedas and Smrtis.   

Jaimini, the author of Mimasa sutras admits three pramanas — perception (pratysksa) inference (anumana) and testimony (sabda). Prabhakara adds two more pramanas - Comparison (upamana) and implication (arthapatti) and raises the number of pramanas into five. Kumarila admits all these five and adds another pramana - non- apprehension (anupalabdhi) and thus we find six pramanas there in Mimamsa.   

'''Pratyaksha Pramana'''<blockquote>सत्संप्रयोगे पुरुषस्येन्द्रियाणां बुद्धिजन्म तत्प्रत्यक्षम्...१,१.४ (Mima. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":1">Mimamsa [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF Sutras]</ref></blockquote>A contact between an object and indriyas generates Knowledge for Purusha and it is called Pratyaksha.<ref name=":2">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (Reprint 1978) [https://archive.org/details/jha-purvamimamsa_201412/page/n32 ''The Prabhakara  School of Purva Mimamsa''.] Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers</ref>

=== Jaimini Mimamsa Sutras ===

Jaimini's Mimamsa sutras firmly affirm that Vedas are the source of Dharma and explain in detail the pramanatva (authoritativeness) of Vedas and Smrtis. However, with respect to pramanas, they do not explicitly define their acceptance but indirectly explain many of them. Pratyaksha pramana is, nevertheless, directly dealt with as given below.  

'''Shabda Pramana''' - Vedas

 

Anumana however, is not given in the sutras and here the Shabara Bhashya is consulted to show that Anumana pramana is also accepted by Mimamsakas.<blockquote>अनुमानं ज्ञातसम्बन्धस्यैकदेशदर्शनादेकदेशान्तरेऽसन्निकृष्टेऽर्थे बुद्धिः। तत्तु द्विविधं- प्रत्यक्षतोदृष्टसंबन्धं, सामान्यतोदृष्टसंबन्धम् च। प्रत्यक्षतोदृष्टसंबन्धं यथा, धूमाकृतिदर्शनादग्न्याकृतिविज्ञानम्। सामान्यतोदृष्टसंबन्धं यथा, देवदत्तस्य गतिपूर्विकां देशान्तरप्राप्तिमुपलभ्यादित्यगतिस्मरणम्।<ref name=":11" /></blockquote>'''Shabda Pramana''' - Vedas

<blockquote>औत्पत्तिकस् तु शब्दस्यार्थेन संबन्धस् तस्य ज्ञानम् उपदेशोऽव्यतिरेकश् चार्थेऽनुपलब्धे तत्प्रमाणं बादरायणस्यानपेक्षत्वात् -१.१.५<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>On the other hand, the relation of the word with its meaning is eternal. Consequently Upadesha (injunctions or vedopadesa) is the means of knowing dharma and it is undeviated in regard to objects not perceived by other means of knowledge. It is authoritative specially as it is independent according to Badarayana. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.274358/page/n22 Page 23] of Reference<ref name=":10">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1916) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.274358 The Purva Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini. Chapters 1 -3.] Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>.

<blockquote>औत्पत्तिकस् तु शब्दस्यार्थेन संबन्धस् तस्य ज्ञानम् उपदेशोऽव्यतिरेकश् चार्थेऽनुपलब्धे तत्प्रमाणं बादरायणस्यानपेक्षत्वात् -१.१.५<ref name=":1" /></blockquote>On the other hand, the relation of the word with its meaning is eternal. Consequently Upadesha (injunctions or vedopadesa) is the means of knowing dharma and it is undeviated in regard to objects not perceived by other means of knowledge. It is authoritative specially as it is independent according to Badarayana. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.274358/page/n22 Page 23] of Reference<ref name=":10">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1916) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.274358 The Purva Mimamsa Sutras of Jaimini. Chapters 1 -3.] Allahabad : The Panini Office</ref>.

==== Upamana, Arthapatti and Abhava ====

==== Upamana, Arthapatti and Abhava ====

While Pratyaksha, Anumana and Shabda pramanas have been explicitly mentioned in the sutras, the others such as Upamana and Arthapatti are not expressed in sutras in Mimamsa. The authoritative commentary of Mimamsa, the Shabara bhyasya, gives the explanations for Upamana and Arthapatti, Abhava is as follows<blockquote>उपमानमपि, सादृश्यम् असन्निकृष्टेऽर्थे बुद्धिमुत्पादयति। यथा गवयदर्शनं गोस्मरणस्य। अर्थापत्तिरपि - दृष्टः, श्रुतो वार्थोऽन्यथा नोपपद्यते इत्यर्थकल्पना। यथा, जीवति देवदत्ते गृहाभावदर्शनेन बहिर्भावस्यादृष्टस्य कल्पना।।</blockquote><blockquote>अभावोऽपि प्रमाणाभावो, नास्ति- इत्यस्यार्थस्यासन्निकृष्टस्य।। तस्मात् प्रसिद्धत्वान्न परीक्षितव्यं निमित्तम्।।<ref>Shabara Bhasya ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Pada 1])</ref></blockquote>Arthapatti "presumption" also consists of in the presuming of something not seen, on the ground that a fact already perceived or heard.. <ref>Mm. Ganganatha Jha (1933) ''Shabara Bhasya Volume 1 : Adyayas 1 - 3'' Baroda : Oriental Institute ([https://archive.org/details/ShabaraBhasyaTrByGanganathJha/page/n29 Page 16])</ref><ref>Bhattacharya, Asima (2014) Ph. D. Thesis Titled : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/20680 A Study on the contributions of Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara on Anumana and Arthapatti in Mimamsa School of Philosphy.]'' (Chapter 4) Assam University</ref>

While Pratyaksha, Anumana and Shabda pramanas have been explicitly mentioned in the sutras, the others such as Upamana and Arthapatti are not expressed in sutras in Mimamsa. The authoritative commentary of Mimamsa, the Shabara bhyasya, gives the explanations for Upamana and Arthapatti, Abhava is as follows<blockquote>उपमानमपि, सादृश्यम् असन्निकृष्टेऽर्थे बुद्धिमुत्पादयति। यथा गवयदर्शनं गोस्मरणस्य। अर्थापत्तिरपि - दृष्टः, श्रुतो वार्थोऽन्यथा नोपपद्यते इत्यर्थकल्पना। यथा, जीवति देवदत्ते गृहाभावदर्शनेन बहिर्भावस्यादृष्टस्य कल्पना।।</blockquote><blockquote>अभावोऽपि प्रमाणाभावो, नास्ति- इत्यस्यार्थस्यासन्निकृष्टस्य।। <ref name=":11">Shabara Bhasya ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Pada 1])</ref></blockquote>Arthapatti "presumption" also consists of in the presuming of something not seen, on the ground that a fact already perceived or heard.. <ref>Mm. Ganganatha Jha (1933) ''Shabara Bhasya Volume 1 : Adyayas 1 - 3'' Baroda : Oriental Institute ([https://archive.org/details/ShabaraBhasyaTrByGanganathJha/page/n29 Page 16])</ref><ref>Bhattacharya, Asima (2014) Ph. D. Thesis Titled : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/20680 A Study on the contributions of Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara on Anumana and Arthapatti in Mimamsa School of Philosphy.]'' (Chapter 4) Assam University</ref>

'''Shabda Pramana''' - Smrtis

'''Shabda Pramana''' - Smrtis

=== Prabhakara Mimamsa (5 Pramanas) ===

=== Prabhakara Mimamsa (5 Pramanas) ===

Prabhakara Mimamsa while accepting the 4 Pramanas also accepts Arthapatti as one of the Pramanas. <blockquote>प्रमाणमनुभूतिः, सा स्मृतेरन्या, न सा स्मृतिः । न प्रमाणं स्मृतिः पूर्वप्रतिपत्तिव्यपेक्षणात्।<ref name=":2" /> (Prakaranapanchika)</blockquote>Prabhakara Mimamsikas, define prama or valid knowledge as immediate experience (Anubhuti). It is different from smriti or memory which is the impression of past experiences. That is to say 'valid cognition' is Apprehension. Hence according to them the truth of knowledge, praamaanya is guaranteed by its having the characteristic of immediacy.  

Prabhakara Mimamsa while accepting the 4 Pramanas also accepts Arthapatti as one of the Pramanas. <blockquote>प्रमाणमनुभूतिः, सा स्मृतेरन्या, न सा स्मृतिः । न प्रमाणं स्मृतिः पूर्वप्रतिपत्तिव्यपेक्षणात्।<ref name=":2">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (Reprint 1978) [https://archive.org/details/jha-purvamimamsa_201412/page/n32 ''The Prabhakara  School of Purva Mimamsa''.] Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers</ref> (Prakaranapanchika)</blockquote>Prabhakara Mimamsikas, define prama or valid knowledge as immediate experience (Anubhuti). It is different from smriti or memory which is the impression of past experiences. That is to say 'valid cognition' is Apprehension. Hence according to them the truth of knowledge, praamaanya is guaranteed by its having the characteristic of immediacy.  

=== Bhatta Mimamsa (6 Pramanas) ===

=== Bhatta Mimamsa (6 Pramanas) ===

Advaita vedanta also defines pramana as the operative cause (kaarana) of prama or ture knowledge. It defines prama in two ways. First, prama means knowledge that has both the characteristics of novelty and uncontradictoriness. This means that true knowledge is uncontradicted and original, i.e. it gives us new information. Secondly, prama simply means uncontradicted knowledge of objects, excluding or including memory.  <ref>Brahma [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Sutra]</ref><ref>Brahma [https://archive.org/stream/BrahmaSutraBhashyaByAdiShankaracharyasanskrit.pdf/Brahma.Sutra.Bhashya.By.Adi.Shankaracharya.Sanskrit#mode/1up Sutras With Sankara Bhasyam]</ref>

Advaita vedanta also defines pramana as the operative cause (kaarana) of prama or ture knowledge. It defines prama in two ways. First, prama means knowledge that has both the characteristics of novelty and uncontradictoriness. This means that true knowledge is uncontradicted and original, i.e. it gives us new information. Secondly, prama simply means uncontradicted knowledge of objects, excluding or including memory.  <ref>Brahma [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Sutra]</ref><ref>Brahma [https://archive.org/stream/BrahmaSutraBhashyaByAdiShankaracharyasanskrit.pdf/Brahma.Sutra.Bhashya.By.Adi.Shankaracharya.Sanskrit#mode/1up Sutras With Sankara Bhasyam]</ref>

== Reference ==

== Reference ==

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[[Category:Darshanas]]

[[Category:Darshanas]]