Changes

Electricity (विद्युत), light (प्रकाशः), Heat (तापः), Mechanics (motion (गतिः) and inertia of things), Magnetism (चुम्बकत्वम्), Gravitation (गुरुत्वम्), Sound  (ध्वनिः) and its transmission, and quantum physics, which comprise the subjects of modern physics have been explored in several Indian traditions along with their applications. In the Vedas, [[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] represents many aspects of physics. It should be kept in mind that Vedic terminology is full of symbolism and hence the interpretations of Veda mantras have to be taken in that perspective.

Electricity (विद्युत), light (प्रकाशः), Heat (तापः), Mechanics (motion (गतिः) and inertia of things), Magnetism (चुम्बकत्वम्), Gravitation (गुरुत्वम्), Sound  (ध्वनिः) and its transmission, and quantum physics, which comprise the subjects of modern physics have been explored in several Indian traditions along with their applications. In the Vedas, [[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] represents many aspects of physics. It should be kept in mind that Vedic terminology is full of symbolism and hence the interpretations of Veda mantras have to be taken in that perspective.

== भारते भौतिकशास्त्रस्य स्रोतग्रन्थाः ॥ Source Texts for Physics in India ==

== भारतीय-भौतिकशास्त्रस्य स्रोतग्रन्थाः ॥ Indian Source Texts for Physics ==

There are many sources of knowledge of physics in ancient Indian texts and a wide range of topic they dealt with.

There are many sources of knowledge of physics in ancient Indian texts and a wide range of topic they dealt with.

# [[Vedas (वेदाः)|'''Vedas''']] - They were the earliest texts that deal with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|concepts of cosmology]], creation  of the universe and cosmic cycles. Sutra granthas specifically the [[Shulbasutras (शुल्बसूत्राणि)|Shulbasutras]] gave the fundamentals of mathematics and their application in geometry and architecture.

# [[Vedas (वेदाः)|'''Vedas''']] - They were the earliest texts that deal with the [[Srshti Siddhanta (सृष्टिसिद्धान्तः)|concepts of cosmology]], creation  of the universe and cosmic cycles. Sutra granthas specifically the [[Shulbasutras (शुल्बसूत्राणि)|Shulbasutras]] gave the fundamentals of mathematics and their application in geometry and architecture.

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=== ॥ Physical Attributes of Substance and Objects in Vaiseshika Darshana ===

=== पदार्थानां भौतिकगुणाः॥ Physical Attributes of Substances ===

In Classical (or Newtonian) Physics the role of Observer was ignored even though observation was essential. In Modern Physics, however, the role of the Observer is significant and is a critical requirement for all observations, since all observations are purely relative to the Observer. Even though Vaiseshika system deals with Classical Physics and not Quantum or Relativistic Physics, the importance of Observer was well recognized and the Observer was defined in two components: The Mind and the Self. The Self could be the actual Observer, but Self should have an active Mind, for performing observations. This could be identified as a unique contribution of Vaiseshika principles.<ref name=":92">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref><blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.6)<ref name=":82" />

In Classical (or Newtonian) Physics the role of Observer was ignored even though observation was essential. In Modern Physics, however, the role of the Observer is significant and is a critical requirement for all observations, since all observations are purely relative to the Observer. Even though Vaiseshika system deals with Classical Physics and not Quantum or Relativistic Physics, the importance of Observer was well recognized and the Observer was defined in two components: The Mind and the Self. The Self could be the actual Observer, but Self should have an active Mind, for performing observations. This could be identified as a unique contribution of Vaiseshika principles.<ref name=":92">Prabhu, C. S. R. (2014) ''The Physics of Vaiseshika'' Tirupati: Sri Venkateswara Vedic University.</ref><blockquote>रूपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । (Vais. Dars. 1.1.6)<ref name=":82" />

# शब्द - Sound

# शब्द - Sound

Gunas are also elaborated in [[Gunas or Qualities : An Ayurvedic perspective (आयुर्वेदे गुणाः)|Ayurveda]] by Acharya Chanaka and in [[Gunas in Nyaya Shastra (न्यायशास्त्रानुसारेण गुणनिरुपणम्)|Nyaya Shastra]].

Gunas are also elaborated in [[Gunas or Qualities : An Ayurvedic perspective (आयुर्वेदे गुणाः)|Ayurveda]] by Acharya Chanaka and in [[Gunas in Nyaya Shastra (न्यायशास्त्रानुसारेण गुणनिरुपणम्)|Nyaya Shastra]].

=== ॥ Air vs Space ===

=== वायुः आकाशश्च ॥ Air (Vayu) and Space (Akasha) ===

In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":02" />

In his attempt to clarify a difference between space and air, Kanāda used the attribute of touch, which is absent in space: “Air has the property of touch, while space does not have such a property.” While analyzing air, Kanāda concludes that "क्रियावत्त्वात् गुणवत्त्वाच्च । वैशेषिक-२,१.१२ । air is substance since it has action and attributes." Air is matter, but its non-perception in spite of being a substance is due to the non-existence of colour in it. With the non-perception of air, Kanāda defines reality beyond appearance. Not all that exists in the world is visible to human eyes. To support that air is matter, Kanāda argued that तृणे कर्म वायुसंयोगात् । वैशेषिक-५,१.१४ । breeze can move the blades of grass. Thus air, though invisible, can exert force and move things.<ref name=":02" />

=== ॥ Dik (Space) and Kala (Time) ===

=== दिक् च कालश्च॥ Dik (Directional space) and Kala (Time) ===

Vaisheshika principles approach fundamental scientific concepts in a characteristic manner. In these sutras we find the basic definitions of dravyas or categories of time and space.<blockquote>तत्त्वम्भावेन । वैशेषिक-२,२.८ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Time, like Existence, is One (unity), because, in spite of their multiplicity, the marks of Time, namely the cognition (example - "it is slow or late") are the same in all places and because there is no distinguishing mark like the Atman, which is Existence. Time which is said to be One, however, is manifold, hours, moments, days, days and nights, seasons and years. The reason for this is explained as due to the external condition or Upadhi - the indivisible time appears to be different according to the limit set by the movement of the Sun as well as the limit imposed by the effects of sun.<ref name=":32">Basu, B. D. (Ed.). (1923). ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada'' (N. Sinha, Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Panini Office. (pp.172)</ref> The division of time as past, present and future as understood by the observer is said to be a consequence of the fact that time is a function of movement.<blockquote>इत इदमिति यतस्तद्दिश्यं लिङ्गम् । वैशेषिक-२,२.१० ।</blockquote>- That which gives rise to such (cognition and usage) as "This (is remote, etc) from this" is the mark of space.

Vaisheshika principles approach fundamental scientific concepts in a characteristic manner. In these sutras we find the basic definitions of dravyas or categories of time and space.<blockquote>तत्त्वम्भावेन । वैशेषिक-२,२.८ ।</blockquote>Meaning: Time, like Existence, is One (unity), because, in spite of their multiplicity, the marks of Time, namely the cognition (example - "it is slow or late") are the same in all places and because there is no distinguishing mark like the Atman, which is Existence. Time which is said to be One, however, is manifold, hours, moments, days, days and nights, seasons and years. The reason for this is explained as due to the external condition or Upadhi - the indivisible time appears to be different according to the limit set by the movement of the Sun as well as the limit imposed by the effects of sun.<ref name=":32">Basu, B. D. (Ed.). (1923). ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada'' (N. Sinha, Trans.; 2nd ed.). The Panini Office. (pp.172)</ref> The division of time as past, present and future as understood by the observer is said to be a consequence of the fact that time is a function of movement.<blockquote>इत इदमिति यतस्तद्दिश्यं लिङ्गम् । वैशेषिक-२,२.१० ।</blockquote>- That which gives rise to such (cognition and usage) as "This (is remote, etc) from this" is the mark of space.

Space is identified through the fact that it can provide the context to describe objects as being separated spatially.

Space is identified through the fact that it can provide the context to describe objects as being separated spatially.

== ॥ Universal Vedic Conceptions ==

== Universal Vedic Conceptions ==

Physical concepts in the Vedic texts show some universal features, such as

Physical concepts in the Vedic texts show some universal features, such as

# '''Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light''' as the principle of life, the essence of devatas and all manifestations

# '''Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light''' as the principle of life, the essence of devatas and all manifestations

# '''Ap (primaeval water)''' as the supra-sensible first cause.

# '''Ap (primaeval water)''' as the supra-sensible first cause.

These universal conceptions laid the foundations for newer formulations which are holistic in nature and structure.

These universal conceptions laid the foundations for newer formulations which are holistic in nature and structure.

=== ॥ Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light ===

=== विश्वज्योतिः ॥ Visvajyoti or Cosmic Light ===

A striking feature of the Rigvedic texts is the attempt to discover the essence or power that is behind all manifestations. In the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], the concept of the unmanifested is cosmic energy, and the manifested is cosmic light, which is referred to as Visvajyoti, a positive unitary principle, pure and sublime. One can conceive the cosmic light as the principle of life and longevity, and it is the ‘soul of all gods’ and the ‘womb’ of all created things. Sri Aurobindo explains the symbolism of Aditi as 'the boundless' or 'the unbounded'. According to the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], Aditi is the substratum (pure consciousness of infinite existence) of all that is here and beyond. Aditi is Light-Infinite, and the deities who are born of Aditi are manifestations of the Infinite Light. Mundaka Upanishad (2.20.10) refers to Brahman as the Self-Luminous Light.<ref name=":12">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 453-459</ref>

A striking feature of the Rigvedic texts is the attempt to discover the essence or power that is behind all manifestations. In the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], the concept of the unmanifested is cosmic energy, and the manifested is cosmic light, which is referred to as Visvajyoti, a positive unitary principle, pure and sublime. One can conceive the cosmic light as the principle of life and longevity, and it is the ‘soul of all gods’ and the ‘womb’ of all created things. Sri Aurobindo explains the symbolism of Aditi as 'the boundless' or 'the unbounded'. According to the [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], Aditi is the substratum (pure consciousness of infinite existence) of all that is here and beyond. Aditi is Light-Infinite, and the deities who are born of Aditi are manifestations of the Infinite Light. Mundaka Upanishad (2.20.10) refers to Brahman as the Self-Luminous Light.<ref name=":12">Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N., & Subbarayappa, B. V. (1971). A concise history of science in India. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. pp. 453-459</ref>

=== ऋतम् ॥ Rta ===

=== ऋतम् ॥ Rta ===

Rta and satya were the successive manifestations of Prakriti after the commencement of the process of creation. While rta is the cosmic order, Satya, the Sanskrit term, is synonymous with 'Truth' in English, but in physics ''''satya' denotes 'reality'''<nowiki/>'. Verma<ref name=":22" /> mentions that in Yaskacharya's Nirukta, rta has been stated to denote '''electricity'''.

Rta and satya were the successive manifestations of Prakriti after the commencement of the process of creation. While rta is the cosmic order, Satya, the Sanskrit term, is synonymous with 'Truth' in English, but in physics ''''satya' denotes 'reality'''<nowiki/>'. Verma<ref name=":22" /> mentions that in Yaskacharya's Nirukta, rta has been stated to denote '''electricity'''.

=== ॥ Yajna ===

=== यज्ञः ॥ Yajna ===

Yajna is referred to as the navel of the universe (vishvanabhi) round which the latter turns, and as the unifying principle which expands and contracts in accordance with the happenings in the universe. For, the Rgvedic seers believed that yajna is the instrument for preserving the cycle of cosmic events in harmony. The act of yajna is for the protection of rta. It also has the connotation of dynamism too.<ref name=":12" />

Yajna is referred to as the navel of the universe (vishvanabhi) round which the latter turns, and as the unifying principle which expands and contracts in accordance with the happenings in the universe. For, the Rgvedic seers believed that yajna is the instrument for preserving the cycle of cosmic events in harmony. The act of yajna is for the protection of rta. It also has the connotation of dynamism too.<ref name=":12" />

=== ॥ Ap (Water) ===

=== अप् ॥ Ap (Water) ===

The famous Nasadiya Sukta in the tenth Mandala of the Rigveda, speaks of water as the supra-sensible First Cause or the primeval world-ground; and water is the first "element" to be conceived in this manner, without any mythological association. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (5.5.1), it is stated: ‘In the beginning this world was just water.’<ref name=":12" />

The famous Nasadiya Sukta in the tenth Mandala of the Rigveda, speaks of water as the supra-sensible First Cause or the primeval world-ground; and water is the first "element" to be conceived in this manner, without any mythological association. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (5.5.1), it is stated: ‘In the beginning this world was just water.’<ref name=":12" />

=== ॥ Panchamahabhutas ===

=== पञ्चमहाभूतानी ॥ Panchamahabhutas ===

The Indian doctrine of five elements, or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]], it must be emphasized, is a part of the philosophical ideas. In other words, it does not have an independent standing apart from its being an integrated component of the leading systems of Indian thought.<ref name=":12" /> It accounts for the apparently unordered, diverse world of matter and qualities. Also known as Panchabhutas (Mahabhutani), the five elements are Prithvi, Apas, Tejas, Vayu, and Akasha, are loosely translated respectively as earth, water, fire, air and a non-material ubiquitous substance. Since they are interrelated, they have to be viewed in totality.

The Indian doctrine of five elements, or [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]], it must be emphasized, is a part of the philosophical ideas. In other words, it does not have an independent standing apart from its being an integrated component of the leading systems of Indian thought.<ref name=":12" /> It accounts for the apparently unordered, diverse world of matter and qualities. Also known as Panchabhutas (Mahabhutani), the five elements are Prithvi, Apas, Tejas, Vayu, and Akasha, are loosely translated respectively as earth, water, fire, air and a non-material ubiquitous substance. Since they are interrelated, they have to be viewed in totality.

== ॥ Concept of Motion ==

== कर्मपदार्थनिरूपणम् ॥ Concept of Motion ==

=== ॥ Defining Motion based on Vaiseshika Principles and Prashastapada Bhashyam ===

=== ॥ Defining Motion based on Vaiseshika Principles and Prashastapada Bhashyam ===

Prashastapada in कर्मपदार्थनिरूपणम् prakarana<ref name=":102">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashyam]</ref> defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunction and disjunction i.e., change of place of particles (संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणम्)<ref name=":0">Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co. (Chapter 2: Hindu ideas on mechanics pp. 129-132)</ref> and evolves a discussion of its characteristics properties.

Prashastapada in कर्मपदार्थनिरूपणम् prakarana<ref name=":102">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Prashastapada Bhashyam]</ref> defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunction and disjunction i.e., change of place of particles (संयोगविभागनिरपेक्षकारणम्)<ref name=":0">Seal, B. (1915). ''The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus''. Longmans, Green and Co. (Chapter 2: Hindu ideas on mechanics pp. 129-132)</ref> and evolves a discussion of its characteristics properties.

# प्रतिनियतजातियोगित्वम् । दिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भकत्वं || pratiniyatajātiyogitvam | digviśiṣṭakāryārambhakatvaṃ - ability to classify into distinct types (of motion) characterized by directions of initial motion (linear, upwards, contraction, spreading etc)

# प्रतिनियतजातियोगित्वम् । दिग्विशिष्टकार्यारम्भकत्वं || pratiniyatajātiyogitvam | digviśiṣṭakāryārambhakatvaṃ - ability to classify into distinct types (of motion) characterized by directions of initial motion (linear, upwards, contraction, spreading etc)

Prashastapada defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunctions and disjunctions i.e., a change of place of particles. He regards karma (motion) as instantaneous (क्षणिक), distinguishing it from impressed motion, momentum (vega) which is a persistent tendency (Samskara) and implies a series of motions. Accordingly, in one and the same particle there can be only one motion at any given moment, since its change of place at that moment is one and definite. Motion of a particle or object is one but from the point of view of the Observer, there may be many motions involved, e.g., a falling leaf driven by wind may have a rotatory or vibratory motion and a vertical downward motion at the same time. Here each particle of the leaf taken separately has only one motion or change of place at the same moment, but from Observer's stance, the particles have a rotatory or vibratory motion in one relation and the leaf as whole has a downward motion in another relation.<ref name=":0" />

Prashastapada defines motion as the unconditional cause of conjunctions and disjunctions i.e., a change of place of particles. He regards karma (motion) as instantaneous (क्षणिक), distinguishing it from impressed motion, momentum (vega) which is a persistent tendency (Samskara) and implies a series of motions. Accordingly, in one and the same particle there can be only one motion at any given moment, since its change of place at that moment is one and definite. Motion of a particle or object is one but from the point of view of the Observer, there may be many motions involved, e.g., a falling leaf driven by wind may have a rotatory or vibratory motion and a vertical downward motion at the same time. Here each particle of the leaf taken separately has only one motion or change of place at the same moment, but from Observer's stance, the particles have a rotatory or vibratory motion in one relation and the leaf as whole has a downward motion in another relation.<ref name=":0" />

=== ॥ Cosmic Motion ===

=== ऋतम् ॥ Cosmic Motion ===

In the discussion about Rta in the earlier section, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":42" /> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,  

In the discussion about Rta in the earlier section, it is mentioned that Rta pertains to cosmic motion. Prakriti in motion is named '''rta''' and its transformed or condensed state is called '''satya''' in Vedic texts. Rta is derived from the root r meaning ''gati'' or motion.<ref name=":42" /> The concept of motion is fundamental as seen in the movement of sound waves, the speed of light rays travelling in space, the falling bodies due to gravitation,

=== अण्वोः गतिशीलता ॥ Atoms are in a state of motion ===

=== अण्वोः गतिशीलता ॥ Atoms are in a state of motion ===

Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":62">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called '''parispanda''' (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":42" />

Rigveda and Yajurveda mention that Agni causes movement in Paramanu or Atoms (atomic motion). Energy within each and every atom makes them dynamic and active in motion (गतिशील). Energy imparts the qualities of speed, progress, expansiveness and novelty to every molecule. The Vedic term for molecules is रेतस्।.<ref name=":62">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 1-37)</ref><blockquote>अग्निर् मूर्धा दिवः ककुत् पतिः पृथिव्या ऽ अयम् । अपां रेतांसि जिन्वति ॥ (Yajurveda. 3.12)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote>The Vaiseshika theory posits that atoms possess an inherent property called '''parispanda''' (vibration or motion). Thus, motion/movement is intrinsic to matter and is the basis of all activity in the universe. Viseshika conception of matter is embodied in the term dravya (substance) whose definition criteria includes<ref name=":42" />