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Line 68: − Some important concepts of chemistry that are studied in modern times were proposed in ancient times primarily in Samkhya and Vaiseshika darshanas. + + − + + − + − + − + − + − + − − − The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind). − Each of the first five substances possess a unique quality, which makes the substance what it is. Maharshi Kanada recognized four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref> − − # kshiti or earth - smell − # apa or water - taste − # tejas or fire - color − # vayu or air - touch − − The first four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are partless and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha. Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules. These atoms are characterized by their characteristic mass, number, quantity, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /> − − That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions. − − === Chemical Processes === − Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature. − − ==== Combination of Atoms ==== − Atoms may conjoin or disjoin in reactions. The atoms of the same bhuta (element) combine driven by an inherent tendency which is their natural property to form dyads according to Prashastapada. It represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to our modern conception. These binary molecules or dyads then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation.<ref name=":1" /> Maharshi Kanada maintained that different atoms combine in different patterns, some in pairs, some in triads, tetrads etc. − − Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads ≡ 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1 − − While Kanada's Atoms combine ≡ basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":5" /> − − Atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda). − − ==== Effect of Heat ==== − A substance may change qualitatively under the influence of heat in its course of existence. The Vaisheshika’s stand on such a change is that with application of heat a substance<ref name=":1" /> − − - decomposes into original homogenous paramanus or the basic unit with zero mass (not the unit of dyad, triad etc) − − - transformation of the character of the atoms − − - recombination of paramanus with a new basic unit arrangement and order resulting in a new substance. − − The Vaisheshikas hold that under the influence of heat, substances are broken down to the most basic entity (paramanu) before being transformed in to a new substance whereas the Nyaya school does not believe in decomposition in to the very basic entity.<ref name=":3" /> − − Combination may also take place either between atoms of two or more substances belonging to the same or different bhuta classes.<ref name=":1" /> − − (A) Mono-bhautic compounds :—These are the simplest ; i. e., compounds formed by the union of homogeneous atoms of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same bhuta class. − − (B) Hetero-bhautic compounds :—These may be bi or polybhautic compounds formed by the union of heterogeneous atoms of substances belonging to the different bhuta classes. − − A nature (Tattva) of the particular substance when it turns into another nature is called transmutation (Utparivartana) in scientific terms. A study on the Changes (Parivartana) and analysis (Visleṣaṇa) of the substance because of its origin and qualities is called Chemical Science of the particular substance. The Change is of two kinds such as − − 1) Physical Change (Bhautika Parivartana) − − 2) Chemical Change (Rāsāyanika Parivartana) − − The first type of change i.e. the Physical Change, is when the nature of the substance undergoes changes due to various reasons for a particular period of time and returns back to its previous state. For example, a piece of Iron forms into magnet after a deep friction (Gharṣaṇa) on the magnet and returns into being a piece of iron after it loses the magnetic effect. In same manner, water turns into ice at the state of high cooling (Himānka) and returns to liquid state after melting. In second type of change i.e. Chemical Change once the nature of the substance changes it cannot be reversed. For example, Milk turns into curd, and iron turns into rust etc.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref> Line 155:
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→Atomistic Conception of Matter
Hiranyagarbha signifies the 'golden womb' or source of creation. Described as the cosmic entity it represents the potential and creative force behind worldly existence. Hiranyagarbha is the Prana, the vital force, the first manifestation as per Chandogya Upanishad. The whole cosmos is governed and activated by Prana.<ref>''Chandogya Upanisad'' (S. Lokeswarananda, Trans.). (1995). Sri Ramakrishna Math.</ref>
Hiranyagarbha signifies the 'golden womb' or source of creation. Described as the cosmic entity it represents the potential and creative force behind worldly existence. Hiranyagarbha is the Prana, the vital force, the first manifestation as per Chandogya Upanishad. The whole cosmos is governed and activated by Prana.<ref>''Chandogya Upanisad'' (S. Lokeswarananda, Trans.). (1995). Sri Ramakrishna Math.</ref>
=== Atomistic Conception of Matter ===
=== Atomistic Conception of Matter ===
{{Main article|Atomic Theory of Ancient India (भारतीय परमाणु-विज्ञानम्)}}
Important concepts of physics and chemistry studied in modern times were proposed discussed and debated in ancient times primarily in [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] and [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika]] darshanas. Most notably enumeration of all knowable or sensorial objects called [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] are categorized and their attributes are described in [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]], [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]]-[[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaiseshika]], darshanas and in [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|Ayurveda]] samhitas.
The Samkhya theory posits that the world is a product of ordered evolution from an original undifferentiated Prakriti, and one becoming many. The Vaiseshika darshana propounds that the world arises out of atoms combining together in various ways, i.e., many becoming one.
=== Elemental nature of Matter ===
The Samkhya theory posits that the world is a product of ordered evolution from an original undifferentiated Prakriti, and one becoming many. The Vaiseshika darshana propounds that the world arises out of atoms combining together in various ways, i.e., many becoming one.
According to the Samkhya school's theory of matter,<ref name=":1" /> '''tanmatras''' are five subtle elements or infra-atomic particles imperceptible to the human senses as a result of continued differentiation and unequal aggregation of gunas from Prakriti as explained above during evolution. These subsequently gave rise, by the same process, to five grosser elements - the Panchamahabhutas namely, akasa (space or ether), vayu (air), tejas (fire), apa (water), and bhumi (earth). They are regarded as representing five abstract principles, or rather a classification of substances on the basis of their properties and states of aggregation. Earth, water and air may be viewed as comprising all the so-called elements or compounds of chemistry.
According to the Samkhya school's theory of matter,<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref> '''tanmatras''' are five subtle elements or infra-atomic particles imperceptible to the human senses as a result of continued differentiation and unequal aggregation of gunas from Prakriti as explained above during evolution. These subsequently gave rise, by the same process, to five grosser elements - the Panchamahabhutas namely, akasa (space or ether), vayu (air), tejas (fire), apa (water), and bhumi (earth). They are regarded as representing five abstract principles, or rather a classification of substances on the basis of their properties and states of aggregation. Earth, water and air may be viewed as comprising all the so-called elements or compounds of chemistry.
* Bhumi or kshiti typifies all solids
* Bhumi or kshiti typifies all solids
* Apa typifies all liquids
* Apa typifies all liquids
* Vayu typifies all gases
* Vayu typifies all gases
According to Samkhya, atoms (Anu-s) of these grosses elements are composite units made up of infra-atomic particles, the tanmatras.
According to Samkhya, atoms (Anu-s) of these grosses elements are composite units made up of infra-atomic particles, the tanmatras. The chemical theory of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika system involves the theory of Anu-s or atoms comparable to the tanmatras of the Samkhya philosophy. The Samkhya virtually substantizes the “gunas”; the Vaiseshikas take them to be qualities which are always found in some dravya. According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. There are two states of anu- a state of motion and a state of absolute rest.
== Chemistry in Ancient India ==
== Chemistry in Ancient India ==
In ancient India, chemistry served medicine on one hand - in the preparation of a number of medicines—and technology on the other—for preparing colors, steels, cements, spirits, etc. While knowledge of metals and oxides was prevalent, of the metallic medicines, mercury was particularly popular. In Rigveda there is a mention of gold, silver, copper, bronze among metals or metallic objects.<ref name=":1" /> The Ramayana and the Mahabharata mention weapons with arrowheads coated with a variety of chemicals, indicating their knowledge of Alchemy. Various chemical processes generally described in the ancient treatises are those of extraction, purification, tempering, calcination, powdering, liquefying, precipitation, washing, drying, steaming, melting, filing, etc. Later, all these processes were applied to various metals, using special apparatuses or yantras and reagents and heating to different degrees—high, average and low.<ref>Chattopadhyaya, D. (1982). ''Studies in the history of science in India'' (Vol. 1). Editorial Enterprises.</ref> Chemistry was vigorously pursued in India during the Mahayana phase of activity of Buddhism as seen from the text Rasaratnakara ascribed to Acharya Nagarjuna.
In ancient India, chemistry served medicine on one hand - in the preparation of a number of medicines—and technology on the other—for preparing colors, steels, cements, spirits, etc. While knowledge of metals and oxides was prevalent, of the metallic medicines, mercury was particularly popular. In Rigveda there is a mention of gold, silver, copper, bronze among metals or metallic objects.<ref name=":1" /> The Ramayana and the Mahabharata mention weapons with arrowheads coated with a variety of chemicals, indicating their knowledge of Alchemy. Various chemical processes generally described in the ancient treatises are those of extraction, purification, tempering, calcination, powdering, liquefying, precipitation, washing, drying, steaming, melting, filing, etc. Later, all these processes were applied to various metals, using special apparatuses or yantras and reagents and heating to different degrees—high, average and low.<ref>Chattopadhyaya, D. (1982). ''Studies in the history of science in India'' (Vol. 1). Editorial Enterprises.</ref> Chemistry was vigorously pursued in India during the Mahayana phase of activity of Buddhism as seen from the text Rasaratnakara ascribed to Acharya Nagarjuna.
=== Classification of Chemical Substances ===
=== Classification of Chemical Substances ===
## '''Cosmetics and perfumes''': Brhatsamhita mentions a large number of references to cosmetics and perfumes used in worship and for human enjoyment. The Bower Manuscript (Navanitaka) contained recipes of hair dyes which consisted of a number of plants like indigo and minerals like iron powder, black iron or steel and acidic extracts of sour rice gruel. Gandhayukti gave recipes for making scents, mouth perfumes, bath powders, incense and talcum powder.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Cosmetics and perfumes''': Brhatsamhita mentions a large number of references to cosmetics and perfumes used in worship and for human enjoyment. The Bower Manuscript (Navanitaka) contained recipes of hair dyes which consisted of a number of plants like indigo and minerals like iron powder, black iron or steel and acidic extracts of sour rice gruel. Gandhayukti gave recipes for making scents, mouth perfumes, bath powders, incense and talcum powder.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Paper and Ink industry''': In ancient India knowledge spread verbally through the word of mouth from the teacher to the disciple, hence it was called Shruti. But with the discovery of scripts, written records gradually replaced the verbal transmission of thought.<ref>Tiwari, L. (n.d.). ''History of paper technology in India''.</ref> Paper, as a writing material, was hardly known in India before the 11th century AD. Al-Biruni writes, "it was in China that paper was first manufactured, Chinese prisoners introduced the fabrication of paper in Samarkand, and thereupon it was made in various places, so as to meet the existing want".
## '''Paper and Ink industry''': In ancient India knowledge spread verbally through the word of mouth from the teacher to the disciple, hence it was called Shruti. But with the discovery of scripts, written records gradually replaced the verbal transmission of thought.<ref>Tiwari, L. (n.d.). ''History of paper technology in India''.</ref> Paper, as a writing material, was hardly known in India before the 11th century AD. Al-Biruni writes, "it was in China that paper was first manufactured, Chinese prisoners introduced the fabrication of paper in Samarkand, and thereupon it was made in various places, so as to meet the existing want".
## '''Fermentation technology''': Approximately 610 Mantras of ninth Maṇḍala of Ṛgveda says that they were preparing drinks like Soma (Ṛgveda-1.116.7& 10.119.3) by the process of fermentation and the same was used in several religions ceremonies and social gatherings.<ref name=":6" /> Barks of plants, stem, flower, leaves, woods, cereals, fruits and sugarcane were some of the sources for making these liquors.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Fermentation technology''': Approximately 610 Mantras of ninth Maṇḍala of Ṛgveda says that they were preparing drinks like Soma (Ṛgveda-1.116.7& 10.119.3) by the process of fermentation and the same was used in several religions ceremonies and social gatherings.<ref name=":6">Jena, D. (2021). Concept of chemical science in Vedic literature. ''International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development'', ''5''(4), 43. <nowiki>https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd41144.pdf</nowiki></ref> Barks of plants, stem, flower, leaves, woods, cereals, fruits and sugarcane were some of the sources for making these liquors.<ref name=":0" />
## '''Building materials''': Mortar and Cement using limestone, gypsum and their modified forms
## '''Building materials''': Mortar and Cement using limestone, gypsum and their modified forms are mentioned as the building materials used in ancient times.
## '''Tanning of leather:'''
## '''Tanning of leather:'''
# [[Mineralogy (धातुशास्त्रम्)]] or the study of Minerals, broadly involves mining of metal ores such as those of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, zinc and iron and preparation of alloys such as bronze, and brass. A very comprehensive account of ores, minerals and metals with their extraction and working, their alloys is found in the Arthashastra. There was wide usage of metals for ornaments, utensils, warfare weaponry, coinage, and preparation of medicines.
# [[Mineralogy (धातुशास्त्रम्)]] or the study of Minerals, broadly involves mining of metal ores such as those of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, zinc and iron and preparation of alloys such as bronze, and brass. A very comprehensive account of ores, minerals and metals with their extraction and working, their alloys is found in the Arthashastra. There was wide usage of metals for ornaments, utensils, warfare weaponry, coinage, and preparation of medicines.
* '''Therapeutic Potential''': Although alchemic purposes of minerals were popular in earlier days, as Ayurveda developed utility of metals and minerals in therapeutics became prominent as seen in Charaka and Sushruta samhitas. Acharya Charaka mentioned three Maharasas (Makshika, Shilajatu and Sasyaka) and all eight Uparasas (Kankushta)<ref>''Charaka Samhita. Ayurveda Dipika Commentary by Chakrapanidutta.'' Varanasi: Chaukhambha Surbharati Prakashan (2000). (Chikitsa Sthana 7/111 pp 456).</ref> in his classic text. Interestingly, information on Sadharana rasas was not found in the classic. In addition to these minerals; information on certain salts (lavana dravya), alkaline substances (ksara dravyas) and calcium containing material (jantava dravya) etc. are also found described.<ref>Chandrashekhar. J., et. al., ''[https://www.academia.edu/38424308/Therapeutic_Potentials_of_Minerals_in_Ancient_India_A_Review_through_Charaka_Samhita Therapeutic Potentials of Minerals in Ancient India : A Review through Charaka Samhita.]'' J Res Edu Indian Med, Jan - Mar 2014; Vol. XX (1): 9-20</ref>
* '''Therapeutic Potential''': Although alchemic purposes of minerals were popular in earlier days, as Ayurveda developed utility of metals and minerals in therapeutics became prominent as seen in Charaka and Sushruta samhitas. Acharya Charaka mentioned three Maharasas (Makshika, Shilajatu and Sasyaka) and all eight Uparasas (Kankushta)<ref>''Charaka Samhita. Ayurveda Dipika Commentary by Chakrapanidutta.'' Varanasi: Chaukhambha Surbharati Prakashan (2000). (Chikitsa Sthana 7/111 pp 456).</ref> in his classic text. Interestingly, information on Sadharana rasas was not found in the classic. In addition to these minerals; information on certain salts (lavana dravya), alkaline substances (ksara dravyas) and calcium containing material (jantava dravya) etc. are also found described.<ref>Chandrashekhar. J., et. al., ''[https://www.academia.edu/38424308/Therapeutic_Potentials_of_Minerals_in_Ancient_India_A_Review_through_Charaka_Samhita Therapeutic Potentials of Minerals in Ancient India : A Review through Charaka Samhita.]'' J Res Edu Indian Med, Jan - Mar 2014; Vol. XX (1): 9-20</ref>
* '''Chemical Apparatus''': A large number of equipment, crucibles, furnaces etc., for processing of minerals and metals are described (Rasarnava). Rasaratnasamucchya contains description of several kinds of crucibles made of fireclay (vahnimrttika), funaces, implements and equipment to be used in the alchemical laboratory.
* '''Chemical Apparatus''': A large number of equipment, crucibles, furnaces etc., for processing of minerals and metals are described (Rasarnava). Rasaratnasamucchya contains description of several kinds of crucibles made of fireclay (vahnimrttika), funaces, implements and equipment to be used in the alchemical laboratory.
* '''Flame tests''': Specific colors of flames are due to specific salts of copper, tin, lead (Rasarnava 49). This test is also practiced in present day as preliminary test to identify the chemical compounds.
* '''Flame tests''': Specific colors of flames are due to specific salts of copper, tin, lead (Rasarnava 49). This test is also practiced in present day as preliminary test to identify the chemical compounds. According to Rasarnava - copper gives blue flame; tin, pigeon-colored; lead, pale; iron, tawny color of flame.
* '''Extraction of Copper''': Procedures were described for making copper metal from makshika (7.12-13) vimala (7.20-21) sasyaka (7.41-44) in Rasarnava text. While makshika and vimala are identified as pyrites (Copper pyrite ores) sasyaka is copper sulphate. All three products yielded Tamra or copper. Copper was discovered long before the Daltonian chemistry came into existence.
* '''Extraction of Copper''': Procedures were described for making copper metal from makshika (7.12-13) vimala (7.20-21) sasyaka (7.41-44) in Rasarnava text. While makshika and vimala are identified as pyrites (Copper pyrite ores) sasyaka is copper sulphate. All three products yielded Tamra or copper. Copper was discovered long before the Daltonian chemistry came into existence.
* '''Corrosion''': Six metals were arranged in the increasing order of corrosion (Rasarnava 7.89-90) - gold, silver, copper, iron, tin and lead. Sulphur was highly reactive with most of the metals.<ref name=":2" />
* '''Corrosion''': Six metals were arranged in the increasing order of corrosion (Rasarnava 7.89-90) - gold, silver, copper, iron, tin and lead. Sulphur was highly reactive with most of the metals.<ref name=":2" />