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# '''Maharasas''': They are a group of minerals which have been recognized as most useful for the potentiation of the rasa namely [[Mercury or Parada (पारद)|Mercury or Parada]].<ref name=":9">Bhagwat, V. S. R., Kurkute, B. R., Shinde, B. T., & Tapare, S. K. (2017). CLASSIFICATION OF RASADRAVYAS IN RASASHASTRA. ''World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research'', ''6''(4), 792–802. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.20959/wjpr20174-8226</nowiki></ref> They are eight in number, Abhraka (Mica; Double silicate of aluminium and Potassium or sodium), Vaikranta (Tourmaline; K₂OAl₂O₃6SiO₂), Makshika (Chalcopyrite/Copper pyrite; Cu₂S, Fe₂S₃), Vimala (Iron pyrite; Fe₂S₃), Shilajatu (Black bitumen or mineral pitch), Sasyaka (Copper sulphate/blue vitriol; CuSO₄ 7H₂O), Rasaka (Zinc ore; ZnO, ZnS, ZnCO₃), Chapala (Bismuth/selenium).

# '''Maharasas''': They are a group of minerals which have been recognized as most useful for the potentiation of the rasa namely [[Mercury or Parada (पारद)|Mercury or Parada]].<ref name=":9">Bhagwat, V. S. R., Kurkute, B. R., Shinde, B. T., & Tapare, S. K. (2017). CLASSIFICATION OF RASADRAVYAS IN RASASHASTRA. ''World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research'', ''6''(4), 792–802. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.20959/wjpr20174-8226</nowiki></ref> They are eight in number, Abhraka (Mica; Double silicate of aluminium and Potassium or sodium), Vaikranta (Tourmaline; K₂OAl₂O₃6SiO₂), Makshika (Chalcopyrite/Copper pyrite; Cu₂S, Fe₂S₃), Vimala (Iron pyrite; Fe₂S₃), Shilajatu (Black bitumen or mineral pitch), Sasyaka (Copper sulphate/blue vitriol; CuSO₄ 7H₂O), Rasaka (Zinc ore; ZnO, ZnS, ZnCO₃), Chapala (Bismuth/selenium).

# '''Uparasa''': These drugs are not equivalent to Parada, but properties of this group of drugs possess less gunas than Parada and indicate usefulness in different procedures of parada or its action towards parada. The eight uparasas are:Gandhaka (Sulphur; S), Gairika (Ochre; Fe₂O₃), Kasisa (Ferrous sulphate/ green vitriol; FeSO₄7H₂O), Kankshi (Potash alum; K₂SO₄ Al₂(SO)₃24H₂O), Haratala (Orpiment, yellow arsenic; As₂S₃), Manahshila (Realgar; As₂S₂), Anjana (Collyrium), Kankushta (Gambose tree extract).

# '''Uparasa''': These drugs are not equivalent to Parada, but properties of this group of drugs possess less gunas than Parada and indicate usefulness in different procedures of parada or its action towards parada.<ref name=":10">G. T., C., Geethesh, R. R., & Angadi, R. (2018). Collocation Of Rasa Dravyas – An Exploration. ''International Ayurvedic Medical Journal'', ''6''(9), 2102–2108. <nowiki>http://www.iamj.in/posts/images/upload/2102_2108.pdf</nowiki></ref> The eight uparasas are: Gandhaka (Sulphur; S), Gairika (Ochre; Fe₂O₃), Kasisa (Ferrous sulphate/ green vitriol; FeSO₄7H₂O), Kankshi (Potash alum; K₂SO₄ Al₂(SO)₃24H₂O), Haratala (Orpiment, yellow arsenic; As₂S₃), Manahshila (Realgar; As₂S₂), Anjana (Collyrium), Kankushta (Gambose tree extract).

# '''Dhatu''': Dhatus are the drugs which are been extracted (removed forcely) from their ore, (by melting or process of distillation)similarly the diseases are removed forcely from the body by them so they are called as Loha.<ref name=":9" /> Here usually seven metals are named: svarna (gold), rajata or tara (silver), tamra (copper), loha (iron), naga (lead), vanga (tin) and yasada (zinc). But, the three alloys (misraloha), viz. brass (pittala), bell-metal (kamsya) and a mixture of five metals (vartaka), also come under the category of dhatu. There are textual differences of which metals comprise metals. Rasarnava mentions six metals including copper but Rasaratnasamuccaya not according a place to copper among the dhatus.

# '''Dhatu''': Dhatus are the drugs which are been extracted (removed forcedly) from their ore, (by melting or process of distillation) similarly the diseases are removed forcedly from the body by them so they are called as Loha.<ref name=":9" /> Here usually seven metals are named: svarna (gold), rajata or tara (silver), tamra (copper), loha (iron), naga (lead), vanga (tin) and yasada (zinc). But, the three alloys (misraloha), viz. brass (pittala), bell-metal (kamsya) and a mixture of five metals (vartaka), also come under the category of dhatu. There are textual differences of which metals comprise metals. Rasarnava mentions six metals including copper but Rasaratnasamuccaya not according a place to copper among the dhatus.

# '''Ratna''': The ratnas generally are precious gems. They are of mineral & animal origin which are found in rocks and are formed during the crust formation of the earth. They are durable, colorful & rare and the most valuable entity. These are classified on the basis of; Structure, Relation to the planets, Opacity & Transparency, Beauty and scarcity. The principal gems used by the rasavadins are: vaikranta (also classed under maharasa), suryakanta (sun-stone; aventurine feldspar mainly containing silicate of sodium and potassium with disseminated particles of red iron oxide which cause fire-like flashes of colour), candrakanta (moon-stone; a type of feldspar containing silicates of aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, etc., which possesses a bluish pearly opalescence), hiraka (diamond), mauktika (pearl), garudodgara (emerald), rajavarta (lapis lazuli), marakata (topaz), nila (sapphire) and padmaraga (ruby).

# '''Ratna''': The ratnas generally are precious gems. They are of mineral & animal origin which are found in rocks and are formed during the crust formation of the earth. They are durable, colorful & rare and the most valuable entity.<ref name=":10" /> These are classified on the basis of; structure, relation to the planets, opacity & transparency, beauty and scarcity. The principal gems used by the rasavadins are: vaikranta (also classed under maharasa), suryakanta (sun-stone; aventurine feldspar mainly containing silicate of sodium and potassium with disseminated particles of red iron oxide which cause fire-like flashes of colour), candrakanta (moon-stone; a type of feldspar containing silicates of aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, etc., which possesses a bluish pearly opalescence), hiraka (diamond), mauktika (pearl), garudodgara (emerald), rajavarta (lapis lazuli), marakata (topaz), nila (sapphire) and padmaraga (ruby).

# '''Visha:''' Rasarnava appears to be the first text to mention about Visha and Upavisa classification. They are useful in rasakarma and rasabandhana. Rasamanjari, Rasendrachintamani, Rasa jala nidhi have explained 18 kanda visha. They are- Kalakuta, Saktuka, Vatsanabha, Shringika, Mustaka, Halahala, Haridra, Mayura, Binduka, Sunama, Shankhanabha, Sumangala, Pushkara, Bhramara, Karkotaka, Shuklakanda, Raktashringi, Visha or Chakra.

# '''Visha:''' Rasarnava appears to be the first text to mention about Visha and Upavisa classification. They are useful in rasakarma and rasabandhana. Rasamanjari, Rasendrachintamani, Rasa jala nidhi have explained 18 kanda visha. They are- Kalakuta, Saktuka, Vatsanabha, Shringika, Mustaka, Halahala, Haridra, Mayura, Binduka, Sunama, Shankhanabha, Sumangala, Pushkara, Bhramara, Karkotaka, Shuklakanda, Raktashringi, Visha or Chakra.<ref name=":10" />

# '''Sadharana rasas''': It is explained only by Rasaratnasamuchaya.<ref name=":9" /> They are Kampillaka (Mallotus philippinesis Muell-arg), Gouripashana (Arsenious oxide; As₂O₃), Navasadara (Ammonium chloride; NH₂Cl), Kapardika (Cowries), Agnijara (Amber), Girisindura (Red oxide of mercury; HgO), Hingula (Cinnabar; HgS), Mruddarashringa (Litharge; PbO).

# '''Sadharana rasas''': It is explained only by Rasaratnasamuchaya.<ref name=":9" /> They are Kampillaka (Mallotus philippinesis Muell-arg), Gouripashana (Arsenious oxide; As₂O₃), Navasadara (Ammonium chloride; NH₂Cl), Kapardika (Cowries), Agnijara (Amber), Girisindura (Red oxide of mercury; HgO), Hingula (Cinnabar; HgS), Mruddarashringa (Litharge; PbO).<ref name=":10" />

According to tradition, the maharasas and the uparasas are classified in the order in which they find their usefulness with reference to mercury (rasendra). There is also a view that mercury alone has the appellation of rasa, and all the others are called uparasas. Some of the texts differ from one another in the number of maha- and uparasas as well as the substances comprising them. While the Rasaratnasamuccaya gives the above classification, the Rasaprakasasudhakara, considers rajavarta (lapis lazuli) as a maharasa in the place of capala.  

According to tradition, the maharasas and the uparasas are classified in the order in which they find their usefulness with reference to mercury (rasendra). There is also a view that mercury alone has the appellation of rasa, and all the others are called uparasas. Some of the texts differ from one another in the number of maha- and uparasas as well as the substances comprising them. While the Rasaratnasamuccaya gives the above classification, the Rasaprakasasudhakara, considers rajavarta (lapis lazuli) as a maharasa in the place of capala.  

Generally, glass is produced by melting a mixture of silica (sand: about 75%), soda (about 15%) and calcium compound (lime: about 10%) with the desired metallic oxides that serve as coloring agents.<ref>Story of Glass in India & the World by Pankaj Goyal</ref> Origin of glass is shrouded in mystery and scholars note that it is difficult to pinpoint the exact period. Modern archeological evidence proved that Mesapotamia, Egypt and India made various siliceous and glazed materials including faience (glazed siliceous ware), glazed pottery and glass.<ref name=":8" />

Generally, glass is produced by melting a mixture of silica (sand: about 75%), soda (about 15%) and calcium compound (lime: about 10%) with the desired metallic oxides that serve as coloring agents.<ref>Story of Glass in India & the World by Pankaj Goyal</ref> Origin of glass is shrouded in mystery and scholars note that it is difficult to pinpoint the exact period. Modern archeological evidence proved that Mesapotamia, Egypt and India made various siliceous and glazed materials including faience (glazed siliceous ware), glazed pottery and glass.<ref name=":8" />

== Chemistry in Minerals and Metals ==

== Chemistry in Minerals and Metals ==

* '''Bidri Alloy''': The alloy produced in the South Indian town of Bidar, contained Zinc (76-98%), Copper (2-10%), at times Lead (1-8%), tin (1-5%) and trace of Iron. Darkening of the Bidriware made was done by applying a paste of ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, sodium chloride and copper sulphate. Several impressive vessels, ewers, pitchers, vessels and huqqa bases were made of bidri ware with patterns influenced by the fine geometric and floral patterns and inlayed with gold and silver metals.  

* '''Bidri Alloy''': The alloy produced in the South Indian town of Bidar, contained Zinc (76-98%), Copper (2-10%), at times Lead (1-8%), tin (1-5%) and trace of Iron. Darkening of the Bidriware made was done by applying a paste of ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, sodium chloride and copper sulphate. Several impressive vessels, ewers, pitchers, vessels and huqqa bases were made of bidri ware with patterns influenced by the fine geometric and floral patterns and inlayed with gold and silver metals.  

== Fermentation Technology ==

== Purification ==

Fermentation is a particular method of digesting of selected substances that leads to chemical transformation of organic substances into simpler compounds by the action of fement.<ref name=":7">Mira Roy. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Fermentation Technology : Page 437)</ref>

The minerals or metals are invariably subjected to purification processes in Ayurvedic preparations and the processes are complicated ones. Though these processes are meant for ‘purifying’ the substances, more often than naught, some extraneous material is added onto them. In general, purification means, according to the rasasastra texts, removal of the deleterious principles present in the naturally occurring substances, so that they become fit for internal use.<ref name=":8" /> Examples include

 

Generally fermentation quickly sets in substances of high sugar-content. Hence fermentation technology started in different parts of the old world with sweet-substances, be it vegetable or animal product. In Egypt honey was utilized first for preparation of intoxicating drink by fermentation. In Bharat, Soma juice, a sweet substance formed the first article of fermentation by the Vedic people. Although the technique or art of fermentation has been "self generated", the process may have been observed and used in remote past.

 

Milk products, like, curd (dadhi) requiring fermentation for changing of milk into such coagulated substance, was a very popular food article even in the Rigveda. The technique of curdling milk occurs in a number of texts connected with the Yajurveda. In the rituals Soma juice preparation involved preparing a sweet concoction for divine offering; while "sura" was another noted fermented product (a product of cereal and honey).<ref name=":7" /> They were also used in dyeing, mixing and dissolving operations and for binding and distilling mercury. In Sushruta Samhita, alcoholic beverages were referred to as 'Khola.'<ref name=":0" />

 

In Arthashastra we find various kinds of liquors described:<ref name=":1" />

* Medaka is prepared from the fermentation of rice

# '''Sulphur''' is purified by melting it in the medium of cow’s ghee and straining the molten mass through a cloth into milk or the juice of Bhrhgaraja kept in a pot. It is then washed with warm water and the process is repeated several times. Purification of sulphur is considered necessary as otherwise the impure sulphur, when taken in, would produce harmful effects such as loss of beauty, strength and vision. There are many methods for purification of sulphur using various materials.

* Prasanna from the fermentation of flour with the addition of spices and fruits

# '''Mica''' is purified by heating it strongly and adding the hot powdered substance into a mixture of sour gruel, cow’s urine, decoction of the three myrobalans, cow’s milk, etc and the process is repeated seven times.

* Asava is derived from fermentation of sugar mixed with honey

# '''Vaikranta''' is purified by boiling it with the decoction of kulattha (horsegram).

# Purification of '''mercury''' involves eight to eighteen methods. Mercury is purified by rubbing it for three days with the decoction of certain plants like kuman (Aloe indica), citraka (Plumbago zeylanica) and red mustard, or by rubbing it with lime and filtering through a cloth. Thereafter it is again rubbed with some quantity of garlic and common salt, and washed.

* Maireya is derived from fermentation of jaggery mixed with long and black pepper or triphala (ayurvedic preparation)

# The '''gems''' are purified by subjecting them to the action of the ‘vapours’ of a plant called jayanti.

* Madhu is obtained from fermentation of grapes

 

Kinva or ferment is prepared from boiled or unboiled paste of masha (Phaseolus radiatus), rice and morata (Alangium salviifolium) and the like.

== References ==

== References ==

[[Category:Shastras]]

[[Category:Shastras]]

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