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Yantra (Samskrit: यन्त्रम्) refers to contrivances or instruments developed using the fundamental knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, agriculture etc., for enabling ease of activities in daily lives. On the other hand, in worship and ritualistic works they are regarded as devices for devotional sadhanas. These are used as tools for mental concentration and meditation. Enormous scientific marvels of modern day mechanical interventions and development of instruments and appliances in the past few centuries, may lead to a misplaced conclusion that sciences have only developed in the recent few centuries.   

Yantra (Samskrit: यन्त्रम्) refers to contrivances or instruments developed using the fundamental knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, agriculture etc., for enabling ease of activities in daily lives. On the other hand, in worship and ritualistic works they are regarded as devices for devotional sadhanas. These are used as tools for mental concentration and meditation. Enormous scientific marvels of modern day mechanical interventions and development of instruments and appliances in the past few centuries, may lead to a misplaced conclusion that sciences have only developed in the recent few centuries.   

Some very simple yantras are commonly known: the water-pulley in the well was called ''Ghatiyantra ;'' an oil-presser was ''Taila-yantra (तैलयन्त्रम्);'' wooden contrivances for pounding rice was ''kuttakayantra (कुट्टकयन्त्रम्);'' a cane-presser was ''Ikshu-yantra;'' ploughs, water-lifts and even weighing balances were referred to as yantras (Arthashastra 2.19<ref>Shamasastry. R, (1915) ''Kautilya's Arthashastra, Translation into English''. Bangalore: The Government Press</ref>). Complex yantras were used in warfare, astronomy and vimanas (aerial cars).

Some very simple yantras are commonly known: the water-pulley in the well was called ''Ghatiyantra ;'' an oil-presser was ''Taila-yantra (तैलयन्त्रम्);'' wooden contrivances for pounding rice was ''kuttakayantra (कुट्टकयन्त्रम्);'' a cane-presser was ''Ikshu-yantra;'' ploughs, water-lifts and even weighing balances were referred to as yantras (Arthashastra 2.19<ref>Shamasastry. R, (1915) ''Kautilya's Arthashastra, Translation into English''. Bangalore: The Government Press</ref>). Complex yantras were used in warfare, astronomy and vimanas (aerial cars).

Yantras, in Indian medicinal texts of [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], refer to instruments used in surgery (shalya chiktsa). [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] texts of Ayurveda, mention the term Yantra to describe apparatuses used for preparation of Rasa drugs (rasa-aushadha-nirmana). The construction of yantras is described in the ancient literature with definite measurements and details for each arrangement. As per Rasasastra, metals and minerals needs to undergo specific procedures like shodhana, marana etc., before they could be administered into the body. All of this could be achieved with the help of yantras.<ref>Sen Aparna and S. Thara Lakshmi. ''A Review on the Yantras with special reference to commonly used Yantras in Rasoushadhi Nirmana.'' Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2019;10(9):35-38 <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.7897/2230-8407.1009257</nowiki></ref> Thus yantras have various meanings based on the context of usage as follows<ref name=":3" />

Yantras, in Indian medicinal texts of [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], refer to instruments used in surgery (shalya chiktsa). [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] texts of Ayurveda, mention the term Yantra to describe apparatuses used for preparation of Rasa drugs (rasa-aushadha-nirmana). The construction of yantras is described in the ancient literature with definite measurements and details for each arrangement. As per Rasasastra, metals and minerals needs to undergo specific procedures like shodhana, marana etc., before they could be administered into the body. All of this could be achieved with the help of yantras.<ref name=":9">Sen Aparna and S. Thara Lakshmi. ''A Review on the Yantras with special reference to commonly used Yantras in Rasoushadhi Nirmana.'' Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2019;10(9):35-38 <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.7897/2230-8407.1009257</nowiki></ref> Thus yantras have various meanings based on the context of usage as follows<ref name=":3" />

# mechanical '''contrivances''' (machine or instrument) eg., kupa yantra (for drawing water)

# mechanical '''contrivances''' (machine or instrument) eg., kupa yantra (for drawing water)

Yantras for actual warfare are in general touched upon in several contexts : II.3 and 18 mention the need to equip forts with yantras. In X. 4, yantras on the field are said to be attended to by special labourers and workers. In IX.2, Kautilya deals with counter-maneuvers for tackling particular kinds of enemy forces; here, among the things to be used against elephants yantras or probably ''Hasti-yantras'' are included; these are machines in general or special machines designed to scare elephants; Bhoja, in his ''Samaranganasutradhdra,'' mentions that one of the uses of the aerial vehicle is to create a terrific noise and frighten elephants. In XIII.4, Kautilya advocates the use of yantras for devastating an enemy place which is full of defense-erections.

Yantras for actual warfare are in general touched upon in several contexts : II.3 and 18 mention the need to equip forts with yantras. In X. 4, yantras on the field are said to be attended to by special labourers and workers. In IX.2, Kautilya deals with counter-maneuvers for tackling particular kinds of enemy forces; here, among the things to be used against elephants yantras or probably ''Hasti-yantras'' are included; these are machines in general or special machines designed to scare elephants; Bhoja, in his ''Samaranganasutradhdra,'' mentions that one of the uses of the aerial vehicle is to create a terrific noise and frighten elephants. In XIII.4, Kautilya advocates the use of yantras for devastating an enemy place which is full of defense-erections.

The chapter devoted wholly to armoury, ''Ayudhagara, 11.18,'' is the main section speaking of military yantras. Kautilya divides the yantras into stationary and mobile - Sthira and Chala yantras.<ref name=":1" />

The chapter devoted wholly to armoury, ''Ayudhagara, book 2, adhyaya 18,'' is the main section speaking of military yantras. Kautilya divides the yantras into immovable and movable - Sthira and Chala yantras.<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>सर्वतोभद्र-जामदग्न्य-बहुमुख-विश्वासघाति-संघाटी-यानक-पर्जन्यक-बाहु-ऊर्ध्व-बाह्व्-अर्ध-बाहूनि स्थिर-यन्त्राणि ।। ०२.१८.०५ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>sarvatobhadra-jāmadagnya-bahumukha-viśvāsaghāti-saṃghāṭī-yānaka-parjanyaka-bāhu-ūrdhva-bāhv-ardha-bāhūni sthita-yantrāṇi || 02.18.05 || (Arth. 2.18.5)<ref name=":8">Arthashastra ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AE Adhikarana 2])</ref></blockquote>

 

==== Sthira Yantras ====

==== Sthira Yantras ====

'''Sarvatobhadra''' : According to the commentary of Bhattasvamin, this is a sharp-edged wheel that is placed on a wall and rotated so as to fling big stones all around; according to others, it is also called Siddhabhumirika-yantra and scatters small stones.

'''Sarvatobhadra''' : According to the commentary of Bhattasvamin, this is a sharp-edged wheel that is placed on a wall and rotated so as to fling big stones all around; according to others, it is also called Siddhabhumirika-yantra and scatters small stones.

'''Bahumukha''' : This is an elevation and a mount for archers; it is leather covered and is as high as the wall to enable archers to shoot all round.

'''Bahumukha''' : This is an elevation and a mount for archers; it is leather covered and is as high as the wall to enable archers to shoot all round.

'''Vishasaghati''' : An iron bar placed across the path in the approaches to the city, which, manipulated by a mechanical device, falls down and pounds a man. It belongs to the class mentioned above for killing unwanted persons and the yantra-torana mentioned in the Mudrardkshasa.

'''Vishvasaghati''' : An iron bar placed across the path in the approaches to the city, which, manipulated by a mechanical device, falls down and pounds a man. It belongs to the class mentioned above for killing unwanted persons and the yantra-torana mentioned in the Mudrardkshasa.

'''Sanghati''' means "tied together". It was made of wood and used to set fire to enemy fortifications. It is called an Agni-yantra.

'''Sanghati''' means "tied together". It was made of wood and used to set fire to enemy fortifications. It is called an Agni-yantra.

'''Parjanyaka''' is an Udaka-yantra, a fire-quencher.

'''Parjanyaka''' is an Udaka-yantra, a fire-quencher.

'''Bahus''' are two arm-like pillars which when released from either side by a yantra, press to death a person between them ; this appears to be an instrument of torture. '''Urdhvabahu''' is similarly an overhead column which comes down upon a man and puts him to death. '''Ardhabahu''' is the same as Bahu, but is of dimunitive size.

'''Bahus''' are two arm-like pillars which when released from either side by a yantra, press to death a person between them ; this appears to be an instrument of torture. '''Urdhvabahu''' is similarly an overhead column which comes down upon a man and puts him to death. '''Ardhabahu''' is the same as Bahu, but is of dimunitive size.<blockquote>पाञ्चालिक-देवदण्ड-सूकरिका-मुसल-यष्टि-हस्तिवारक-तालवृन्त-मुद्गर-गदा-स्पृक्तला-कुद्दाल-आस्फाटिम-उत्पाटिम-उद्घाटिम-शतघ्नि-त्रिशूल-चक्राणि चल-यन्त्राणि ।। ०२.१८.०६ ।।

 

==== Chala Yantras ====

==== Chala Yantras ====

'''Panchalika''' - Its use is outside the fort walls, in the moat; thrown in the midst of the water, its sharp protruding points prevent the progress of enemies.

'''Pánchálika''' - Its use is outside the fort walls, in the moat; thrown in the midst of the water, its sharp protruding points prevent the progress of enemies.

'''Devadandas''' are long cylindrical cannon-like things placed on parapet walls. Bhattasvamin gives them another name Pratitaroca.

'''Devadanda''' are long cylindrical cannon-like things placed on parapet walls. Bhattasvamin gives them another name Pratitaroca.

'''Sukarika''' is a huge thing shaped like a pig or bellows, made of bamboo, rope and hide, filled inside with cotton etc., and is placed on the path as an obstruction and as a buffer to stop stones, etc.,. that are flung by the enemy. According to some others, Sukarikas are to prevent enemies from easily getting up the ramparts; they, apparently, were probably closely suspended all along the walls to prevent the enemy-scaler from getting a foothold.

'''súkarika''' is a huge thing shaped like a pig or bellows, made of bamboo, rope and hide, filled inside with cotton etc., and is placed on the path as an obstruction and as a buffer to stop stones, etc.,. that are flung by the enemy. According to some others, Sukarikas are to prevent enemies from easily getting up the ramparts; they, apparently, were probably closely suspended all along the walls to prevent the enemy-scaler from getting a foothold.

'''Musala and Yashti''' are well-known; '''Hastivaraka''' is interpreted as a two or three-pronged iron rod, '''Hastiparigha''', for striking at elephants, but may really mean, as seen from a reference in Dandin's Avantisundari, a machine which hurls heavy iron rods to smite and demoralize the elephants.

'''Musala and Yashti''' are well-known; '''hastiváraka''' is interpreted as a two or three-pronged iron rod, '''Hastiparigha''', for striking at elephants, but may really mean, as seen from a reference in Dandin's Avantisundari, a machine which hurls heavy iron rods to smite and demoralize the elephants.

A '''Talavrinta''' mentioned is explained as a Vatachakra, the significance of which is obscure. It was a device to create a tempest which could demoralize the enemy ranks. The observation of Philostratus, relating to Alexander's invasion of India, that Indians drive the enemy off by means of tempest and thunders, as if from heaven, may, however, be only an echo of the Vayavyastra described in Ramayana.

A '''tálavrinta''' is explained as a Vatachakra, the significance of which is obscure. It was a device to create a tempest which could demoralize the enemy ranks. The observation of Philostratus, relating to Alexander's invasion of India, that Indians drive the enemy off by means of tempest and thunders, as if from heaven, may, however, be only an echo of the Vayavyastra described in Ramayana.

After '''Mudgara, Gada, Sphriktala''', a picked missile, and '''Kuddala''', are mentioned in the following:—

After '''Mudgara, Gada, Sphriktala''', a picked missile, and '''kuddála''', are mentioned. '''ásphátima''' has four feet, is covered by hide, has a projectile and throws stones. '''udhghátima''' is a machine which demolishes, walls with the iron bars fitted to it, it is interpreted as the Syena-yantra which uproots and tears up things. The '''trisúla and chakra''', are the well-known trident and discus. '''Sataghni''', the centicide, is mentioned in all descriptions of warfare in old literature, but as to, the exact nature of which there is difference of opinion. Bhattasvamin takes it as a huge, cannon-like, cylindrical thing with wheels, placed on the parapet.

 

'''Asphotima''' has four feet, is covered by hide, has a projectile and throws stones.

 

'''Udghatima''' is a machine which demolishes, walls with the iron bars fitted to it, it is interpreted as the Syena-yantra which uproots and tears up things.

 

And before the '''Trisula and Cakra''', which are well-known, there occurs the '''Sataghni''', the centicide, which is mentioned in all descriptions of warfare in old literature, but as to, the exact nature of which there is difference of opinion. Bhattasvamin takes it as a huge, cannon-like, cylindrical thing with wheels, placed on the parapet.

==== Ratha or Chariot ====

==== Ratha or Chariot ====

There is a corroborative evidence of such works from Bhojadeva's treatise and was not merely imaginative fictions. Mechanical fountains were constructed as necessary adjuncts to all palaces is seen in casual descriptions of many dramas. In Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitra drama, fountains or jala-yantras are mentioned. <blockquote>बिन्दूत्क्षेपात्पिपासुः परिपतति शिखी भ्रान्तिमद्वारियन्त्रं bindūtkṣēpātpipāsuḥ paripatati śikhī bhrāntimadvāriyantraṁ (Malavikagnimitram. 2.12)<ref>Malavikagnimitra by Kalidasa ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83 Dvitiyanka])</ref></blockquote>

There is a corroborative evidence of such works from Bhojadeva's treatise and was not merely imaginative fictions. Mechanical fountains were constructed as necessary adjuncts to all palaces is seen in casual descriptions of many dramas. In Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitra drama, fountains or jala-yantras are mentioned. <blockquote>बिन्दूत्क्षेपात्पिपासुः परिपतति शिखी भ्रान्तिमद्वारियन्त्रं bindūtkṣēpātpipāsuḥ paripatati śikhī bhrāntimadvāriyantraṁ (Malavikagnimitram. 2.12)<ref>Malavikagnimitra by Kalidasa ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83 Dvitiyanka])</ref></blockquote>

== References ==

== References ==

[[Category:Shastras]]

[[Category:Shastras]]

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