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Yantra (Samskrit: यन्त्रम्) refers to contrivances or instruments developed using the fundamental knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, agriculture etc., for enabling ease of activities in daily lives. On the other hand, in worship and ritualistic works they are regarded as devices for devotional sadhanas. These are used as tools for mental concentration and meditation. Enormous scientific marvels of modern day mechanical interventions and development of instruments and appliances in the past few centuries, may lead to a misplaced conclusion that sciences have only developed in the recent few centuries.   

Yantra (Samskrit: यन्त्रम्) refers to contrivances or instruments developed using the fundamental knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, agriculture etc., for enabling ease of activities in daily lives. On the other hand, in worship and ritualistic works they are regarded as devices for devotional sadhanas. These are used as tools for mental concentration and meditation. Enormous scientific marvels of modern day mechanical interventions and development of instruments and appliances in the past few centuries, may lead to a misplaced conclusion that sciences have only developed in the recent few centuries.   

Some very simple yantras are commonly known: the water-pulley in the well was called ''Ghatiyantra ;'' an oil-presser was ''Taila-yantra (तैलयन्त्रम्);'' wooden contrivances for pounding rice was ''kuttakayantra (कुट्टकयन्त्रम्);'' a cane-presser was ''Ikshu-yantra;'' ploughs, water-lifts and even weighing balances were referred to as yantras (Arthashastra 2.19<ref>Shamasastry. R, (1915) ''Kautilya's Arthashastra, Translation into English''. Bangalore: The Government Press</ref>). Complex yantras were used in warfare, astronomy and vimanas (aerial cars).

Some very simple yantras are commonly known: the water-pulley in the well was called ''Ghatiyantra ;'' an oil-presser was ''Taila-yantra (तैलयन्त्रम्);'' wooden contrivances for pounding rice was ''kuttakayantra (कुट्टकयन्त्रम्);'' a cane-presser was ''Ikshu-yantra;'' ploughs, water-lifts and even weighing balances were referred to as yantras (Arthashastra 2.19<ref>Shamasastry. R, (1915) ''Kautilya's Arthashastra, Translation into English''. Bangalore: The Government Press</ref>). Complex yantras were used in warfare, astronomy and vimanas (aerial cars).

Yantras, in Indian medicinal texts of [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], refer to instruments used in surgery (shalya chiktsa). [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] texts of Ayurveda, mention the term Yantra to describe apparatuses used for preparation of Rasa drugs (rasa-aushadha-nirmana). The construction of yantras is described in the ancient literature with definite measurements and details for each arrangement. As per Rasasastra, metals and minerals needs to undergo specific procedures like shodhana, marana etc., before they could be administered into the body. All of this could be achieved with the help of yantras.<ref>Sen Aparna and S. Thara Lakshmi. ''A Review on the Yantras with special reference to commonly used Yantras in Rasoushadhi Nirmana.'' Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2019;10(9):35-38 <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.7897/2230-8407.1009257</nowiki></ref> Thus yantras have various meanings based on the context of usage as follows<ref name=":3" />

Yantras, in Indian medicinal texts of [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|Ayurveda]], refer to instruments used in surgery (shalya chiktsa). [[Rasashastra (रसशास्त्रम्)|Rasashastra]] texts of Ayurveda, mention the term Yantra to describe apparatuses used for preparation of Rasa drugs (rasa-aushadha-nirmana). The construction of yantras is described in the ancient literature with definite measurements and details for each arrangement. As per Rasasastra, metals and minerals needs to undergo specific procedures like shodhana, marana etc., before they could be administered into the body. All of this could be achieved with the help of yantras.<ref name=":9">Sen Aparna and S. Thara Lakshmi. ''A Review on the Yantras with special reference to commonly used Yantras in Rasoushadhi Nirmana.'' Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2019;10(9):35-38 <nowiki>http://dx.doi.org/10.7897/2230-8407.1009257</nowiki></ref> Thus yantras have various meanings based on the context of usage as follows<ref name=":3" />

# mechanical '''contrivances''' (machine or instrument) eg., kupa yantra (for drawing water)

# mechanical '''contrivances''' (machine or instrument) eg., kupa yantra (for drawing water)

Yantras for actual warfare are in general touched upon in several contexts : II.3 and 18 mention the need to equip forts with yantras. In X. 4, yantras on the field are said to be attended to by special labourers and workers. In IX.2, Kautilya deals with counter-maneuvers for tackling particular kinds of enemy forces; here, among the things to be used against elephants yantras or probably ''Hasti-yantras'' are included; these are machines in general or special machines designed to scare elephants; Bhoja, in his ''Samaranganasutradhdra,'' mentions that one of the uses of the aerial vehicle is to create a terrific noise and frighten elephants. In XIII.4, Kautilya advocates the use of yantras for devastating an enemy place which is full of defense-erections.

Yantras for actual warfare are in general touched upon in several contexts : II.3 and 18 mention the need to equip forts with yantras. In X. 4, yantras on the field are said to be attended to by special labourers and workers. In IX.2, Kautilya deals with counter-maneuvers for tackling particular kinds of enemy forces; here, among the things to be used against elephants yantras or probably ''Hasti-yantras'' are included; these are machines in general or special machines designed to scare elephants; Bhoja, in his ''Samaranganasutradhdra,'' mentions that one of the uses of the aerial vehicle is to create a terrific noise and frighten elephants. In XIII.4, Kautilya advocates the use of yantras for devastating an enemy place which is full of defense-erections.

The chapter devoted wholly to armoury, ''Ayudhagara, 11.18,'' is the main section speaking of military yantras. Kautilya divides the yantras into stationary and mobile - Sthira and Chala yantras.<ref name=":1" />

The chapter devoted wholly to armoury, ''Ayudhagara, book 2, adhyaya 18,'' is the main section speaking of military yantras. Kautilya divides the yantras into immovable and movable - Sthira and Chala yantras.<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>सर्वतोभद्र-जामदग्न्य-बहुमुख-विश्वासघाति-संघाटी-यानक-पर्जन्यक-बाहु-ऊर्ध्व-बाह्व्-अर्ध-बाहूनि स्थिर-यन्त्राणि ।। ०२.१८.०५ ।।</blockquote><blockquote>sarvatobhadra-jāmadagnya-bahumukha-viśvāsaghāti-saṃghāṭī-yānaka-parjanyaka-bāhu-ūrdhva-bāhv-ardha-bāhūni sthita-yantrāṇi || 02.18.05 || (Arth. 2.18.5)<ref name=":8">Arthashastra ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AE Adhikarana 2])</ref></blockquote>

 

==== Sthira Yantras ====

==== Sthira Yantras ====

'''Sarvatobhadra''' : According to the commentary of Bhattasvamin, this is a sharp-edged wheel that is placed on a wall and rotated so as to fling big stones all around; according to others, it is also called Siddhabhumirika-yantra and scatters small stones.

'''Sarvatobhadra''' : According to the commentary of Bhattasvamin, this is a sharp-edged wheel that is placed on a wall and rotated so as to fling big stones all around; according to others, it is also called Siddhabhumirika-yantra and scatters small stones.

'''Bahumukha''' : This is an elevation and a mount for archers; it is leather covered and is as high as the wall to enable archers to shoot all round.

'''Bahumukha''' : This is an elevation and a mount for archers; it is leather covered and is as high as the wall to enable archers to shoot all round.

'''Vishasaghati''' : An iron bar placed across the path in the approaches to the city, which, manipulated by a mechanical device, falls down and pounds a man. It belongs to the class mentioned above for killing unwanted persons and the yantra-torana mentioned in the Mudrardkshasa.

'''Vishvasaghati''' : An iron bar placed across the path in the approaches to the city, which, manipulated by a mechanical device, falls down and pounds a man. It belongs to the class mentioned above for killing unwanted persons and the yantra-torana mentioned in the Mudrardkshasa.

'''Sanghati''' means "tied together". It was made of wood and used to set fire to enemy fortifications. It is called an Agni-yantra.

'''Sanghati''' means "tied together". It was made of wood and used to set fire to enemy fortifications. It is called an Agni-yantra.

'''Parjanyaka''' is an Udaka-yantra, a fire-quencher.

'''Parjanyaka''' is an Udaka-yantra, a fire-quencher.

'''Bahus''' are two arm-like pillars which when released from either side by a yantra, press to death a person between them ; this appears to be an instrument of torture. '''Urdhvabahu''' is similarly an overhead column which comes down upon a man and puts him to death. '''Ardhabahu''' is the same as Bahu, but is of dimunitive size.

'''Bahus''' are two arm-like pillars which when released from either side by a yantra, press to death a person between them ; this appears to be an instrument of torture. '''Urdhvabahu''' is similarly an overhead column which comes down upon a man and puts him to death. '''Ardhabahu''' is the same as Bahu, but is of dimunitive size.<blockquote>पाञ्चालिक-देवदण्ड-सूकरिका-मुसल-यष्टि-हस्तिवारक-तालवृन्त-मुद्गर-गदा-स्पृक्तला-कुद्दाल-आस्फाटिम-उत्पाटिम-उद्घाटिम-शतघ्नि-त्रिशूल-चक्राणि चल-यन्त्राणि ।। ०२.१८.०६ ।।

 

==== Chala Yantras ====

==== Chala Yantras ====

'''Panchalika''' - Its use is outside the fort walls, in the moat; thrown in the midst of the water, its sharp protruding points prevent the progress of enemies.

'''Pánchálika''' - Its use is outside the fort walls, in the moat; thrown in the midst of the water, its sharp protruding points prevent the progress of enemies.

'''Devadandas''' are long cylindrical cannon-like things placed on parapet walls. Bhattasvamin gives them another name Pratitaroca.

'''Devadanda''' are long cylindrical cannon-like things placed on parapet walls. Bhattasvamin gives them another name Pratitaroca.

'''Sukarika''' is a huge thing shaped like a pig or bellows, made of bamboo, rope and hide, filled inside with cotton etc., and is placed on the path as an obstruction and as a buffer to stop stones, etc.,. that are flung by the enemy. According to some others, Sukarikas are to prevent enemies from easily getting up the ramparts; they, apparently, were probably closely suspended all along the walls to prevent the enemy-scaler from getting a foothold.

'''súkarika''' is a huge thing shaped like a pig or bellows, made of bamboo, rope and hide, filled inside with cotton etc., and is placed on the path as an obstruction and as a buffer to stop stones, etc.,. that are flung by the enemy. According to some others, Sukarikas are to prevent enemies from easily getting up the ramparts; they, apparently, were probably closely suspended all along the walls to prevent the enemy-scaler from getting a foothold.

'''Musala and Yashti''' are well-known; '''Hastivaraka''' is interpreted as a two or three-pronged iron rod, '''Hastiparigha''', for striking at elephants, but may really mean, as seen from a reference in Dandin's Avantisundari, a machine which hurls heavy iron rods to smite and demoralize the elephants.

'''Musala and Yashti''' are well-known; '''hastiváraka''' is interpreted as a two or three-pronged iron rod, '''Hastiparigha''', for striking at elephants, but may really mean, as seen from a reference in Dandin's Avantisundari, a machine which hurls heavy iron rods to smite and demoralize the elephants.

A '''Talavrinta''' mentioned is explained as a Vatachakra, the significance of which is obscure. It was a device to create a tempest which could demoralize the enemy ranks. The observation of Philostratus, relating to Alexander's invasion of India, that Indians drive the enemy off by means of tempest and thunders, as if from heaven, may, however, be only an echo of the Vayavyastra described in Ramayana.

A '''tálavrinta''' is explained as a Vatachakra, the significance of which is obscure. It was a device to create a tempest which could demoralize the enemy ranks. The observation of Philostratus, relating to Alexander's invasion of India, that Indians drive the enemy off by means of tempest and thunders, as if from heaven, may, however, be only an echo of the Vayavyastra described in Ramayana.

After '''Mudgara, Gada, Sphriktala''', a picked missile, and '''Kuddala''', are mentioned in the following:—

After '''Mudgara, Gada, Sphriktala''', a picked missile, and '''kuddála''', are mentioned. '''ásphátima''' has four feet, is covered by hide, has a projectile and throws stones. '''udhghátima''' is a machine which demolishes, walls with the iron bars fitted to it, it is interpreted as the Syena-yantra which uproots and tears up things. The '''trisúla and chakra''', are the well-known trident and discus. '''Sataghni''', the centicide, is mentioned in all descriptions of warfare in old literature, but as to, the exact nature of which there is difference of opinion. Bhattasvamin takes it as a huge, cannon-like, cylindrical thing with wheels, placed on the parapet.

'''Asphotima''' has four feet, is covered by hide, has a projectile and throws stones.

 

Ratha or chariot was an important piece of military equipment mentioned from the Vedic texts. It generally had two wheels (chakra), each having a rim (nemi), felly (pradhi), nave (nabhya) and spokes (ara), connected by a non-revolving axle (aksha), the end of which (aani) fit into the nave holes (kha). Solid wheels were also used. The Sulbasutra of Apastamba gives the dimensions to construct a chariot.<ref name=":7">Ray, P and Sen, S. N. (1986) eds., ''The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol VI Science and Technology'' Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture (pp. 208-210)</ref>

'''Udghatima''' is a machine which demolishes, walls with the iron bars fitted to it, it is interpreted as the Syena-yantra which uproots and tears up things.

 

And before the '''Trisula and Cakra''', which are well-known, there occurs the '''Sataghni''', the centicide, which is mentioned in all descriptions of warfare in old literature, but as to, the exact nature of which there is difference of opinion. Bhattasvamin takes it as a huge, cannon-like, cylindrical thing with wheels, placed on the parapet.

== Yantras in Engineering ==

== Yantras in Engineering ==

Ancient Indians were incredibly skilled in civil engineering, showcasing their prowess through remarkable feats of architecture and urban planning.  

Ancient Indians were incredibly skilled in civil engineering, showcasing their prowess through remarkable feats of architecture and urban planning.  

# City planning - As seen from Mohenjodaro and Harappan excavations, there were advanced extensive water drainage systems, well laid out planned streets, and urban facilities. They were regarded as the world's pioneers in city construction.

# City planning - As seen from Mohenjodaro and Harappan excavations, there were advanced extensive water drainage systems, well laid out planned streets, and urban facilities. They were regarded as the world's pioneers in engineering and city construction as shown by their use of building materials, and construction of roads, drains etc. Arterial streets, road alignments, well-built houses with bricks having more than one floor, provision of sanitary amenities in houses, paved baths, underground sewer pipes are all indicative of the civil engineering skills of the people. Advanced community living is portrayed by two remarkable structures, viz., the Great Bath situated in the citadel mound at Mohenjo-daro and the Great Granary at Harappa.<ref name=":7" />

# Hydraulic structures - Advanced water supply and drainage system was the hallmark of the Harappan civilization's Great Bath. Use of vertical and underground sewer pipes, pulley wheels for drawing water from the wells, swimming pools, and use of paved baths and public drainage system is well evidenced in Harappan city. The step tanks in various cities of India such as Hampi in Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan served as vital water sources and communal gathering spaces, harnessing the groundwater resources. The advanced knowledge of hydraulic engineering enabled them to harness the power of water for agricultural and domestic purposes. The importance of the hydraulic structures<ref name=":6" /> in the Mauryan period can be judged on the basis of the punishments or fines imposed on the offenders. As mentioned in the Arthashastra, “when a person breaks the dam of a tank full of water, he shall be drowned in the very tank; of a tank without water, he shall be punished with the highest amercement; and of a tank which is in ruins owing to neglect, he shall be punished with the middle-most amercement”.

# Hydraulic structures - Advanced water supply and drainage system was the hallmark of the Harappan civilization's Great Bath. Use of vertical and underground sewer pipes, pulley wheels for drawing water from the wells, swimming pools, and use of paved baths and public drainage system is well evidenced in Harappan city. The step tanks in various cities of India such as Hampi in Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan served as vital water sources and communal gathering spaces, harnessing the groundwater resources. The advanced knowledge of hydraulic engineering enabled them to harness the power of water for agricultural and domestic purposes.<ref name=":7" /> The importance of the hydraulic structures<ref name=":6" /> in the Mauryan period can be judged on the basis of the punishments or fines imposed on the offenders. As mentioned in the Arthashastra, “when a person breaks the dam of a tank full of water, he shall be drowned in the very tank; of a tank without water, he shall be punished with the highest amercement; and of a tank which is in ruins owing to neglect, he shall be punished with the middle-most amercement”.

# Road network - The construction of extensive road networks facilitated trade and communication across ancient India. Notable examples include the Grand Trunk Road, commissioned during the Mauryan Empire, which connected major cities and regions, promoting economic prosperity and cultural exchange.

# Road network - The construction of extensive road networks facilitated trade and communication across ancient India. Notable examples include the Grand Trunk Road, commissioned during the Mauryan Empire, which connected major cities and regions, promoting economic prosperity and cultural exchange.

# Architectural Innovations such as the rock-cut cave temples of Ajanta and Ellora, the towering temples of Khajuraho and Hampi, and the intricately carved stupas of Sanchi, are a testament to the unparalleled craftsmanship and knowledge of the ancient artisans.  

# Architectural Innovations such as the rock-cut cave temples of Ajanta and Ellora, the towering temples of Khajuraho and Hampi, and the intricately carved stupas of Sanchi, are a testament to the unparalleled craftsmanship and knowledge of the ancient artisans. The Buddhist Stupas and Viharas depicted their engineering skills. Temple architecture stands testimony for the mathematical and constructional abilities of the ancient artisans.<ref name=":7" />

=== Akasa-yantras ===

=== Akasa-yantras ===

In Somadeva Suri's, ''Yashastilaka Campu,'' written in South India in 949 A.D., the first part of the work, describes the hero resorting to the cool ''yantra-dhara-griha'' to spend the hot hours of the summer days. This park, fitted with mechanical fountains, is appropriately called by the commentator ''Kritrima-megha-mandira,'' the artificial cloud-pavilion. It is erected in the dense garden in an area provided with many canals. There is the stream for water sports in the midst of which is a sandbank raised like a pavilion, provided with a water-bed, ''Salilaika tulika;'' nearby are numerous vessels containing fragrant water, at one end there is an ''yantra-jala-dhara,'' a contrivance producing artificial waterfall; the water is taken through and thrown out of the mouth's of figures of elephants, tigers, lions, snakes etc. Many artificial works adorned the palaces of kings, such as celestial damsels giving shower-baths, figures of monkeys spouting water, statuettes of water- damsels, (jaladevatas); there are wind-damsels (pavana-Kanyakas), wafting breezes with fly-whisks; and figures of ladies, scattering cool sandal-water all around. Somadeva Suri says of such a figure that if her hands were touched, she would emit sprays through her nails; if her face, through the eyes and so on. Somadeva describes how near the bed was a yantra-putrika, a mechanical breeze-lady was plying a fan for the King’s relief.<ref name=":1" />

In Somadeva Suri's, ''Yashastilaka Campu,'' written in South India in 949 A.D., the first part of the work, describes the hero resorting to the cool ''yantra-dhara-griha'' to spend the hot hours of the summer days. This park, fitted with mechanical fountains, is appropriately called by the commentator ''Kritrima-megha-mandira,'' the artificial cloud-pavilion. It is erected in the dense garden in an area provided with many canals. There is the stream for water sports in the midst of which is a sandbank raised like a pavilion, provided with a water-bed, ''Salilaika tulika;'' nearby are numerous vessels containing fragrant water, at one end there is an ''yantra-jala-dhara,'' a contrivance producing artificial waterfall; the water is taken through and thrown out of the mouth's of figures of elephants, tigers, lions, snakes etc. Many artificial works adorned the palaces of kings, such as celestial damsels giving shower-baths, figures of monkeys spouting water, statuettes of water- damsels, (jaladevatas); there are wind-damsels (pavana-Kanyakas), wafting breezes with fly-whisks; and figures of ladies, scattering cool sandal-water all around. Somadeva Suri says of such a figure that if her hands were touched, she would emit sprays through her nails; if her face, through the eyes and so on. Somadeva describes how near the bed was a yantra-putrika, a mechanical breeze-lady was plying a fan for the King’s relief.<ref name=":1" />

There is a corroborative evidence of such works from Bhojadeva's treatise and was not merely imaginative fictions. Mechanical fountains were constructed as necessary adjuncts to all palaces is seen in casual descriptions of many dramas. In Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitra drama, fountains or jala-yantras are mentioned.  

There is a corroborative evidence of such works from Bhojadeva's treatise and was not merely imaginative fictions. Mechanical fountains were constructed as necessary adjuncts to all palaces is seen in casual descriptions of many dramas. In Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitra drama, fountains or jala-yantras are mentioned. <blockquote>बिन्दूत्क्षेपात्पिपासुः परिपतति शिखी भ्रान्तिमद्वारियन्त्रं bindūtkṣēpātpipāsuḥ paripatati śikhī bhrāntimadvāriyantraṁ (Malavikagnimitram. 2.12)<ref>Malavikagnimitra by Kalidasa ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83 Dvitiyanka])</ref></blockquote>

 

 

बिन्दूत्क्षेपात्पिपासुः परिपतति शिखी भ्रान्तिमद्वारियन्त्रं (Malavikagnimitram. 2.12)<ref>Malavikagnimitra by Kalidasa ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%BD%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83 Dvitiyanka])</ref>

Rasasastra deals with metallic, mineral and poisonous drugs. These drugs are pharmaceutically processed and rendered fit for internal administration. For the various processing of rasa uparasadi dhatus and for the preparation of medicines, specific apparatuses called ‘Yantras’ are needed. Metals and minerals are required to undergo certain processes like shodhana, jarana, marana, satwapatana etc before they could be administered into the body and all these processes could only be achieved with the help of yantras. In Rasasastra, ashta samskara of parade is reckoned of great importance in enhancing the potency of parada both from the therapeutical and alchemical point of view. Specific yantras are needed for each of these processes.<ref name=":9" />

== References ==

== References ==

[[Category:Shastras]]

[[Category:Shastras]]

<references />

<references />