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aśmā ca me mṛttikā ca me girayaś ca me parvatāś ca me sikatāś ca me vanaspatayaś ca me hiraṇyaṃ ca me ’yaś ca me śyāmaṃ ca me lohaṃ ca me sīsaṃ ca me trapu ca me yajñena kalpantām || </blockquote>However, according to A. K. Vaish, et. al.<ref name=":1" /> Rig-Vedic hymns have reference to the soldiers putting on '''coats of mail''' (a jacket covered with or composed of metal rings or plates, serving as armour) and using '''metallic helmets'''. Ancient Indians deployed the use of iron in '''agriculture and warfare'''. The uses of iron extended down to southern tip of Tamil Nadu. Based on the weapons and implements cited in Rigveda and the [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]], iron making technology existed to fulfill man's needs for war and peace.<ref name=":1" />

aśmā ca me mṛttikā ca me girayaś ca me parvatāś ca me sikatāś ca me vanaspatayaś ca me hiraṇyaṃ ca me ’yaś ca me śyāmaṃ ca me lohaṃ ca me sīsaṃ ca me trapu ca me yajñena kalpantām || </blockquote>However, according to A. K. Vaish, et. al.<ref name=":1" /> Rig-Vedic hymns have reference to the soldiers putting on '''coats of mail''' (a jacket covered with or composed of metal rings or plates, serving as armour) and using '''metallic helmets'''. Ancient Indians deployed the use of iron in '''agriculture and warfare'''. The uses of iron extended down to southern tip of Tamil Nadu. Based on the weapons and implements cited in Rigveda and the [[Puranas (पुराणानि)|Puranas]], iron making technology existed to fulfill man's needs for war and peace.<ref name=":1" />

Rigveda begins with a prayer to Agni to bless mankind with all worldly pleasures. One of the major contributions of the discovery of fire and pyrotechnology was its use for the extraction of metals from their minerals. Prakash<ref>Prakash, S. (1965) ''Founders of Science in Ancient India'', New Delhi: The Research Institute of Ancient Studies.</ref>  postulated and described the havankund (yajnakunda) as the open air laboratory of the Vedic times which may have been responsible for the discovery and development of the many new uses of the thermochemical energy.

Rigveda begins with a prayer to Agni to bless mankind with all worldly pleasures. One of the major contributions of the discovery of fire and pyrotechnology was its use for the extraction of metals from their minerals. Prakash<ref>Prakash, S. (1965) ''Founders of Science in Ancient India'', New Delhi: The Research Institute of Ancient Studies.</ref>  postulated and described the havankund (yajnakunda) as the open air laboratory of the Vedic times which may have been responsible for the discovery and development of the many new uses of the thermochemical energy.<ref name=":0" />

= Historical evidence of Iron in Ancient India =

= Historical evidence of Iron in Ancient India =

Rapid developments in iron making and its use took place around 1400 B.C. The history of early iron smelting, practiced by the tribal artisans in different regions of ancient India dates back to 1300 to 1200 B.C. The use of iron was relatively unknown except in areas where iron bearing minerals were abundant. Prakash and Tripathi<ref>Prakash, B., and Tripathi, V., (1986), ''Iron technology in ancient india,'' In Historical Metallurgy, September, pp. 568-579.</ref> have documented the early iron age cultures, which could have been independent of each other, arising in five different zones of India. These five cultures were  

Rapid developments in iron making and its use took place around 1400 B.C. The history of early iron smelting, practiced by the tribal artisans in different regions of ancient India dates back to 1300 to 1200 B.C. The use of iron was relatively unknown except in areas where iron bearing minerals were abundant. Prakash and Tripathi<ref>Prakash, B., and Tripathi, V., (1986), ''Iron technology in ancient india,'' In Historical Metallurgy, September, pp. 568-579.</ref> have documented the early iron age cultures, which could have been independent of each other, arising in five different zones of India. These five cultures were  

 

(i) Cairn Burial culture in northwestern India  

(i) Cairn Burial culture in northwestern India  

=== Archeological Excavations ===

=== Archeological Excavations ===

[[File:Table of Iron Tools and Implements.png|562x562px|alt=|thumb|Various implements used during the early, middle and late stages of Iron Age in India]]

[[File:Table of Iron Tools and Implements.png|589x589px|alt=|thumb|Various implements used during the early, middle and late stages of Iron Age in India]]

The following are a few iron artifacts excavated and investigated in Indian archeological sites.<ref name=":1" />  

The following are a few iron artifacts excavated and investigated in Indian archeological sites.<ref name=":1" />  

* carbon steel (Tikshna Loha)

* carbon steel (Tikshna Loha)

Quenching and tempering was also learned along with steeling of Iron. Quenching consists immersing the red hot metal into water. Metal would become harden by this process. Tempering consists of repeated heating of the metal and allowing it to cool slowly while it is hammered (Banerjee 1965:2).<ref>Saravanan, R. ''Iron:'' ''From Metal to Metallurgy'' Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5 (2017): 514‐518</ref> Raw iron, wood and carbon are heated in earthen bowls at a temperature of 1535°C and then, slowly cooled over 24 hours. This gives high quality carbon rich steel. A sword made of this steel is so sharp and strong that it even cuts silk smoothly.  

Quenching and tempering was also learnt along with steeling of Iron. Quenching consists immersing the red hot metal into water. Metal would become hardened by this process. Tempering consists of repeated heating of the metal and allowing it to cool slowly while it is hammered (Banerjee 1965:2).<ref>Saravanan, R. ''Iron:'' ''From Metal to Metallurgy'' Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5 (2017): 514‐518</ref> Raw iron, wood and carbon are heated in earthen bowls at a temperature of 1535°C and then, slowly cooled over 24 hours. This gives high quality carbon rich steel. A sword made of this steel is so sharp and strong that it even cuts silk smoothly.  

The ancient process of iron making has been vividly described in the folk songs of `Chokh Agaria' from Lapha. One of these songs as translated by Joshi is as follows:<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>''She presses down the bellows with the strength of her heels,'' ''He wields the heavy hammer with all his might''

The ancient process of iron making has been vividly described in the folk songs of `Chokh Agaria' from Lapha. One of these songs as translated by Joshi is as follows:<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>''She presses down the bellows with the strength of her heels,'' ''He wields the heavy hammer with all his might''

''How happy I feel,'' ''The chokh boy beats with the hammer''

''How happy I feel,'' ''The chokh boy beats with the hammer''

''The hammer whistles as he swings it round,'' ''And I feel very happy.''</blockquote>As it appears from the above mentioned song the whole operation was a family affair controlled by the headman and his wife and the technology was maintained as a secret, passed on from generation to generation. The younger generation participated in the activities and when by the age of 17 to 20 they were trained in all the skills of the trade, they were permitted to marry and operate their own furnace. The actual practice of iron making can be divided into the following six steps-

''The hammer whistles as he swings it round,'' ''And I feel very happy.''</blockquote>As it appears from the above mentioned song the whole operation was a family affair controlled by the headman and his wife and the technology was maintained as a secret, passed on from generation to generation. The younger generation participated in the activities and when by the age of 17 to 20 they were trained in all the skills of the trade, they were permitted to marry and operate their own furnace. The actual practice of iron making can be divided into the following six steps-<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">A.K. Vaish, P.K. Biswas, S.P. Chaudhuri, M.M. Humane, R.K. Minz, B.A. Lakra, S.K. Sinhababu, P.K.De, N.G. Goswami, C. S. Sivaramakrishnan and P. Ramachandra Rao. ''Iron making in ancient India - A critical assessment'' in Tradition and Innovation in the History of Iron Making - An Indo-European Perspective eds., Girijā Pāṇḍe, Jan af Geijerstam (2002) Nainital: Pahar Parikarma</ref>

# '''collection of raw material''' '''i.e. iron ore, wood and refractory clay''': In spite of the abundantly available hematite deposits, ancient smelters preferred to use low grade magnetite ore. The ore was concentrated by panning in the water stream. Ore is calcined to remove moisture and associated organic matter and broken to small pieces. The charcoal used for heating the ore and generating the reducing gas (CO) was produced from a variety of wood depending upon their availability in the region, and generally no basic flux was used to adjust the properties of the FeO rich fayalite (2FeO.SiO₂) slag formed during smelting. The refractory clay and stiff mud are used for making the furnace.

# '''Collection of raw material''' '''i.e. iron ore, wood and refractory clay''': In spite of the abundantly available hematite deposits, ancient smelters preferred to use low grade magnetite ore. The ore was concentrated by panning in the water stream. Ore is calcined to remove moisture and associated organic matter and broken to small pieces. The charcoal used for heating the ore and generating the reducing gas (CO) was produced from a variety of woods depending upon their availability in the region, and generally no basic flux was used to adjust the properties of the FeO rich fayalite (2FeO.SiO₂) slag formed during smelting. Refractory clay and stiff mud are used for making the furnace.[[File:Iron Smelting Furnace.PNG|thumb|Megalithic iron smelting furnace at Naikund (near Nagpur, Maharashtra)|327x327px]]

# construction of the furnace and the tuyere pipe.  

# '''Construction of the furnace and the tuyere pipe''': Ancient furnaces were constructed using curved bricks made of refractory clay. They used two distinct types of furnaces in their operation, which differ in their physical form. The basic principle of operation is same for both. Although the furnaces look crude they were made with great precision, their dimensions being fixed on the basis of experience of the head smelter. The furnaces were constructed using the breadth of man's fingers Angula (about 80mm) as a unit of measurement. The other scales were Bitta i.e., the distance between the tips of the little finger and the thumb in the expanded form (about 240mm) and `Hasta' i.e., the length of the fore arm (about 475 to 500mm). Furnaces were of two kinds: <ref name=":4" />

# making and fixing the bellows.

## Aerial type furnace is where the furnace is partly subterranean and constructed over a rectangular pit.

# Making and fixing the bellows: Bellows were made of buffalo hide. The blow pipes used were of bamboo. Furnace hearth was prepared by lining it with 'Kodon' paddy chaff or charcoal powder mixed with clay. One clay pipe is inserted through a parabolic opening in the bottom of the furnace which acts as a tuyere. The opening through which the tuyere is introduced is then luted with clay.  

# drying, firing and operating the furnace.

# drying, firing and operating the furnace.

# removal of slag and handling of red hot sponge iron bloom.

# removal of slag and handling of red hot sponge iron bloom.