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Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्) (view source)
Revision as of 13:25, 6 August 2024
, 13:25, 6 August 2024→Discussion of Certain Metaphysical Concepts under Nyaya Darsana
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== परिचयः || Introduction ==
== परिचयः || Introduction ==
To understand the vaidika dharma, knowledge of Nyaya is extremely important. Manu, the first law giver, explains that the principles of Dharma can be understood by systematic reasoning of Shrutis (श्रुत्यनुगामी तर्क). Nyaya throws light on all subjects, explains all karmas and thus is the foundation for all dharmas. Due to the wide ranging applicability of its principles, Nyaya is universally popular.<ref>Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya (1966) ''[https://archive.org/details/BharatiyaDarsanaSaraBaldevUpadhyaya/page/n201 Bharatiya Darshana]''. Varanasi : Sharada Mandir </ref> The distinguishing feature of Nyaya is its belief in the utility of analysis and in the reliability of reason, and systematically defending its standpoint against rival views. Some salient siddhantas of Nyaya include<ref>M. Hiriyanna, (1949) ''The Essentials of Indian Philosophy.'' London : George Allen and Unwin Ltd.</ref>
To understand the vaidika dharma, knowledge of Nyaya is extremely important. Manu, the first law giver, explains that the principles of Dharma can be understood by systematic reasoning of Shrutis (श्रुत्यनुगामी तर्क). Nyaya throws light on all subjects, explains all karmas and thus is the foundation for all dharmas. Due to the wide ranging applicability of its principles, Nyaya is universally popular.<ref>Pt. Baldev Upadhyaya (1966) ''[https://archive.org/details/BharatiyaDarsanaSaraBaldevUpadhyaya/page/n201 Bharatiya Darshana]''. Varanasi : Sharada Mandir </ref>
== Founder - Gautama Maharshi ==
== Founder - Gautama Maharshi ==
Maharshi Gautama (गौतमः) was the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy. Nyaya Sutra (न्यायसूत्राणि) by Gautama is the first work on Nyaya Darsana and is composed of five adhyayas and each adhyaya is divided into two Ahnikas (आह्निकः).
Maharshi Gautama (गौतमः) was the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy. Nyaya Sutra (न्यायसूत्राणि) by Gautama is the first work on Nyaya Darsana and is composed of five adhyayas and each adhyaya is divided into two Ahnikas (आह्निकः).
== Etymology ==
The word 'nyaya' popularly signifies 'right' or 'justice.' Nyaya shastra is the science of right judgment or true reasoning. Nyaya is predominantly intellectual, analytic, logical and epistemological in nature. It is also called Tarkashastra or the science of reasoning; Pramanashashtra or the science of logic and epistemology;
== न्यायशास्त्रवाङ्मयम् ॥ Nyaya Literature ==
== न्यायशास्त्रवाङ्मयम् ॥ Nyaya Literature ==
== Nyaya Siddhantam - Core Concepts ==
== Nyaya Siddhantam - Core Concepts ==
Nyaya is the basis of all Sanskrit philosophical studies. It is an introduction to all systematic philosophy. It is the preliminary course for a student of Philosophy. A study of the Nyaya Darsana develops the power of reasoning or arguing.<ref name=":1" />
=== Salient Features of Nyaya Siddhanta ===
The distinguishing feature of Nyaya is its belief in the utility of analysis and in the reliability of reason, and systematically defending its standpoint against rival views. Some salient siddhantas of Nyaya include<ref>Hiriyanna, M. (1949) ''The Essentials of Indian Philosophy.'' London : George Allen and Unwin Ltd. (84-105)</ref><ref name=":0" />
'''1. Knowledge'''
* '''Realism''' - Belief in the independent (even from our perceptions and knowledge) existence of the external world, i.e., the world is real. Hence Nyaya is described as realistic.
* '''Logic''' - Independent existence of the world can be defended not by faith or intuition but by logical arguments and critical reflection on the nature of our experience.
* '''Pluralism -''' Nyaya maintains that the nature of Ultimate Reality is many and thus is described as pluralistic in view.
* '''Atomistic''' '''Pluralism -''' Anu-s (Atoms) are the constituents of matter and they make up many entities, both spiritual and material which constitute the Jagat (Universe), thus Nyaya is said to be Atomistic Pluralism.
* '''Matter, time and space''' are all recognized as independent entities.
* '''Knowledge is Objective''' - As an upholder of realism, Nyaya philosophy expresses that knowledge always deals with an object.
*
* '''Causation Theory is Asatkaryavada''' - Nyāya theory of causation is known as ‘asatkaryavada’ or ‘ārmbhavāda’. They viewed that effect is a new product produced/created by a cause but the effect and the cause are not one and the same. The effect is a new product and is not present earlier in the cause (i.e., cause is not transformed to effect).
* '''Ishvara''' '''is the Efficient cause''' - Ishvara is the efficient cause (instrumental cause) of the creation, He is the creator, sustainer and destroyer of the Universe. He has the real knowledge of all objects and events in the Universe.
* '''Material cause of Universe''' - It is the eternal atoms of the four bhutas (earth, water, fire and air)
* '''Self has no Consciousness (Jada)''' - The self in its original state has no consciousness and hence devoid of cognition and knowledge. But when it comes into contact with sense organs it acquires consciousness.
* '''Consciousness of Subject (Jiva)''' - According to Nyāya, the self can neither be identified with mind (mānas) nor can be identified with pure consciousness (Brahman of Advaita), but understood as consciousness belonging to an individual/subject (Jivatma).
* '''Karma Cycle''' - As long as self is attached to the body and senses, it goes through the cycles of birth and death.
* '''Moksha''' - It is the state of refrain from all kinds of sufferings and bondage which arise because of the self’s association with body and sense organs.
=== Discussion of Certain Concepts ===
'''1. Knowledge and Pramanas'''
Interpreting the term ‘jnana or knowledge’ Nyāyikas says that it may be treated as cognition, apprehension, consciousness. All knowledge is manifestation of objects. Knowledge reveals both subject and object, yet both are quite distinct from knowledge. Just as a lamp manifests physical things placed before it, knowledge reveals all objects placed before it. Knowledge may be valid or invalid.<ref name=":0">https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38168/1/Unit-1.pdf</ref>
Interpreting the term ‘knowledge’ Nyāyikas say that it may be treated as cognition, apprehension, consciousness. All knowledge is manifestation of objects. Knowledge reveals both subject and object, yet both are quite distinct from knowledge. Just as a lamp manifests physical things placed before it, knowledge reveals all objects placed before it. Knowledge is valid or invalid.<ref name=":0">https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38168/1/Unit-1.pdf</ref>
- Valid knowledge is defined as the right apprehension of an object. In order to be valid, Knowledge must correspond to reality. Valid knowledge is produced by four means of knowledge, [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], namely,
- Valid knowledge is defined as the right apprehension of an object. In order to be valid, Knowledge must correspond to reality. Valid knowledge is produced by four means of knowledge, [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], namely,
# Pratyaksha (perception by the senses)
# Pratyaksha (perception by the senses)
# Anumana (inference)
# Anumana (inference)
# Upamana (comparison)
# Upamana (comparison)
# Shabda (word or verbal testimony). It includes Vedic revelation.<ref name=":0" />
# Shabda (word or verbal testimony). It includes Vedic revelation.<ref name=":0" />
- Invalid knowledge is defined as the wrong apprehension of an object. It includes smrti (memory), samshaya (doubt), viparyaya (error), and tarka (hypothetical reasoning). Memory is not cognition at the present moment, it is a represented one. Doubt is uncertainty in cognition. Error is false cognition not corresponding to the real object. Hypothetical reasoning is unreal knowledge.<ref name=":0" />
- Invalid knowledge is defined as the wrong apprehension of an object. It includes smrti (memory), samshaya (doubt), viparyaya (error), and tarka (hypothetical reasoning). Memory is not cognition at the present moment, it is a represented one. Doubt is uncertainty in cognition. Error is false cognition not corresponding to the real object. Hypothetical reasoning is unreal knowledge.<ref name=":0" />
# The resulting state of cognition or Pramiti (प्रमिति)
# The resulting state of cognition or Pramiti (प्रमिति)
# The means of knowledge or the Pramana (प्रमाणम्)
# The means of knowledge or the Pramana (प्रमाणम्)
The Prameya, or the objects of which right knowledge to be obtained, are twelve, viz., {{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 500px; font-style: italic;|* Self - [[Atman (आत्मन्)]]
The Prameya, or the objects of which right knowledge is to be obtained, are twelve in number, viz., {{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 500px; font-style: italic;|* Self - [[Atman (आत्मन्)]]
* Body - [[Sharira (शरीरम्)]]
* Body - [[Sharira (शरीरम्)]]
* Senses - [[Indriyas (इन्द्रियाणि)]]
* Senses - [[Indriyas (इन्द्रियाणि)]]
* Fruits of action (Phala)
* Fruits of action (Phala)
* Suffering (Dukha)
* Suffering (Dukha)
* Freedom from suffering (Apavarga)}}'''2. Brahman in Nyaya'''
* Freedom from suffering (Apavarga)}}'''2. Isvara in Nyaya'''
Nyaya Darsana says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called Adrishta, under the control of Ishvara.
He supervises the work of Adrishta. God does not alter the course of Adrishta but renders its operation possible. God is the bestower of the fruits of actions of human beings. God is a Special Soul endowed with omnipotence and omniscience, by which He guides and regulates world. God is a Personal Being. He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge), Adharma (demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge), Ichcha (desire) and Prayatna (volitional effort). God is One, Creator, who is endowed with Nitya Jnana (eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu (all-pervading).
'''3. The Soul'''<ref name=":1" />
'''3. The Soul'''<ref name=":1" />
Apavarga, or release, is absolute deliverance from pain. It is freedom from pain. It is cessation of pain. It is not the enjoyment of positive pleasure. It is not annihilation of the self. It is destruction of bondage. Release from the twenty-one kinds of pain or Duhkha is liberation (Moksha). In the state of release, there is no connection of mind with the Atman. The Atman is destitute of desire, effort, merit, demerit, hatred, mental impressions, etc., in the state of liberation, as, then, there is no mind. The liberation (Moksha) of the Naiyayikas is a state of painless, and passionless existence.
Apavarga, or release, is absolute deliverance from pain. It is freedom from pain. It is cessation of pain. It is not the enjoyment of positive pleasure. It is not annihilation of the self. It is destruction of bondage. Release from the twenty-one kinds of pain or Duhkha is liberation (Moksha). In the state of release, there is no connection of mind with the Atman. The Atman is destitute of desire, effort, merit, demerit, hatred, mental impressions, etc., in the state of liberation, as, then, there is no mind. The liberation (Moksha) of the Naiyayikas is a state of painless, and passionless existence.
==== Similarities Between Nyaya and Vaiseshika<ref name=":1" /> ====
==== Similarities Between Nyaya and Vaiseshika<ref name=":1" />====
The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are analytic types of philosophy. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika explore the significance of time, space, cause, matter, mind, soul and knowledge for experience, and give the results in the form of a theory of the universe. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are regarded as parts of one whole. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. They are allied systems. They both believe in a Personal God, a plurality of souls and an atomic universe. Further, they use many arguments in common.<ref name=":1" />
The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are analytic types of philosophy. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika explore the significance of time, space, cause, matter, mind, soul and knowledge for experience, and give the results in the form of a theory of the universe. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are regarded as parts of one whole. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. They are allied systems. They both believe in a Personal God, a plurality of souls and an atomic universe. Further, they use many arguments in common.<ref name=":1" />
दुःखजन्मप्रवृत्तिदोषमिथ्याज्ञानानां उत्तरोत्तरापाये तदनन्तरा पायातपवर्गः।।२।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्}
दुःखजन्मप्रवृत्तिदोषमिथ्याज्ञानानां उत्तरोत्तरापाये तदनन्तरा पायातपवर्गः।।२।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्}
== Application of Nyaya Darshana ==
The purpose of Nyaya is critical examination of the objects of knowledge by means of the canons of logical proof. The Nyaya system deals critically with metaphysical problems. It contains discussions on psychology, logic, metaphysics and theology. The Nyaya is intended to furnish a correct method of philosophical enquiry into all the objects and subjects of human knowledge, including the process of reasoning and laws of thought. The evidence of the senses is submitted to a critical enquiry. The Nyaya gives a description of the mechanism of knowledge in detail.
Nyaya is the basis of all Sanskrit philosophical studies. It is an introduction to all systematic philosophy. It is the preliminary course for a student of Philosophy. A study of the Nyaya Darsana develops the power of reasoning or arguing.<ref name=":1" />
Nyayasutras lay emphasis on valid knowledge, reasoning and evidence and thus makes it relevant in various contemporary contexts such as various science and technology fields, law and justice, ethics, economics, media and communication. Here’s an exploration of its current utility:
Nyayasutras lay emphasis on valid knowledge, reasoning and evidence and thus makes it relevant in various contemporary contexts such as various science and technology fields, law and justice, ethics, economics, media and communication. Here’s an exploration of its current utility: