Changes

# What would “global justice” look like?

# What would “global justice” look like?

The essential point in the above first four questions is that these questions are directly connected with consciousness.  

The essential point in the above first four questions is that these questions are directly connected with consciousness.

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

Vedanta thus, studies the above aspects in detail, as different schools of thought have proposed a different interpretation of reality and creation of the universe.  

Vedanta thus, studies the above aspects in detail, as different schools of thought have proposed a different interpretation of reality and creation of the universe.  

=== Right Knowledge ===

=== Right Knowledge ===

The great contribution of the Nyaya system is its elaborate and critical theories of investigation. All the problems pertaining to the theory of knowledge have been stated with remarkable clarity in an analytical fashion. The several instruments of knowledge or [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], together with the possible pitfalls and fallacies have been set forth in a lucid manner. The Nyaya scheme of sixteen [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or categories has supplied the Indian thinkers, through centuries, with the means of discriminating, quickly and surely the true from the false inferences making it an indispensable shastra to the study of all other systems.<ref name=":2" />

The nature of any system is largely determined by its methodology. Both Indian and western systems employ the objective and subjective methods in their approach to Truth. The great contribution of the Nyaya system is its elaborate and critical theories of investigation. All the problems pertaining to the theory of knowledge have been stated with remarkable clarity in an analytical fashion. The several instruments of knowledge or [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], together with the possible pitfalls and fallacies have been set forth in a lucid manner. The Nyaya scheme of sixteen [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or categories has supplied the Indian thinkers, through centuries, with the means of discriminating, quickly and surely the true from the false inferences making it an indispensable shastra to the study of all other systems.<ref name=":2" />

Traditional Vedanta considers scriptural evidence, Vedas or Shabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while [[perception]], or pratyaksa, and logical inference, or Anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid). Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes it irreconcilable with Mimamsa.

Traditional Vedanta considers scriptural evidence, Vedas or Shabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while [[perception]], or pratyaksa, and logical inference, or Anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid). Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes it irreconcilable with Mimamsa.

All the darshanik systems believe that the universe is a cosmos, but not a chaos. They postulate a central moral purpose as governing the universe. The universe is a moral order. There is a point in human life and purpose in the heart of the universe. The good that we do in this life is not without its reward. The evil takes its due toll from man. The universe is law abiding to the core. Moral life has its own purpose. As a corollary to this the systems postulate rebirth as well as pre-existence. They subscribe to the inevitable law of karma. [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]] points out that the individual is responsible for his acts and not a mysterious fate. The conditions of life are determined but not the will of the agent. The law of Karma applies to the conditions that are being determined and not to the agent. Vedanta envisages the concept of Moksha as the possibility of liberation from bondage in Karma cycle. Each school differs in their presentation of the Supreme Entity and the cause of delusion and attachment of an individual  in this world.<ref>Rao, Nagaraja P. (1943) ''The Schools of Vedanta''. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.22</ref>  

All the darshanik systems believe that the universe is a cosmos, but not a chaos. They postulate a central moral purpose as governing the universe. The universe is a moral order. There is a point in human life and purpose in the heart of the universe. The good that we do in this life is not without its reward. The evil takes its due toll from man. The universe is law abiding to the core. Moral life has its own purpose. As a corollary to this the systems postulate rebirth as well as pre-existence. They subscribe to the inevitable law of karma. [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]] points out that the individual is responsible for his acts and not a mysterious fate. The conditions of life are determined but not the will of the agent. The law of Karma applies to the conditions that are being determined and not to the agent. Vedanta envisages the concept of Moksha as the possibility of liberation from bondage in Karma cycle. Each school differs in their presentation of the Supreme Entity and the cause of delusion and attachment of an individual  in this world.<ref>Rao, Nagaraja P. (1943) ''The Schools of Vedanta''. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.22</ref>  

The chief subject matter of Vedanta in Brahma sutras involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning "revealing Brahman." The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], and the relation between Brahman and Jagat, the world. Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:   

The chief subject matter of Vedanta in Brahma sutras involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning "revealing Brahman." The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], and the relation between Brahman and Jagat, the world. Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share common features, that can be called the vedantic core:   

* '''Concept of Brahman''' - Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthanatrayi]].'' It involves an understanding of Reality, the ultimate Truth, knowledge of Brahman (Self), experience of consciousness, relationship and causality of man and universe, Avidya (ignorance), Maya (illusion) etc. All schools support this Supreme Entity though they differ in the way they express the qualities regarding Brahman.

* '''Concept of [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]]''' - Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthanatrayi]].'' It involves an understanding of Reality, the ultimate Truth, knowledge of Brahman (Self), experience of consciousness, relationship and causality of man and universe, Avidya (ignorance), Maya (illusion) etc. All schools support this Supreme Entity though they differ in the way they express the qualities regarding Brahman.

* '''Concept of Atman''' - Atman is the transcendental background of both individual self and non-self, expressed as self or consciousness. The same reality is called from the subjective side as Atman and from the objective side as Brahman and both terms are used as synonyms.<ref name=":3" /> All systems explain Atman, Jivatman, to support plurality of beings.

* '''Concept of [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]]''' - Atman is the transcendental background of both individual self and non-self, expressed as self or consciousness. The same reality is called from the subjective side as Atman and from the objective side as Brahman and both terms are used as synonyms.<ref name=":3" /> All systems explain Atman, Jivatman, to support plurality of beings.

* '''Concept of Karma''' - Actions or karma help prepare the mind (Chittashuddhi) for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards are renounced. Actions, knowledge and devotion are three paths to attain knowledge of the self. Karma is intricately related to rewards of action such as Papa (demerits) and Punya (merits) which are adrstha or unseen effects.

* '''Concept of [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]]''' - Actions or karma help prepare the mind (Chittashuddhi) for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards are renounced. Actions, knowledge and devotion are three paths to attain knowledge of the self. Karma is intricately related to rewards of action such as Papa (demerits) and Punya (merits) which are adrstha or unseen effects.

* '''Concept of Dharma''' -  Atman can be realized by one who does practice self-control, desirelessness, and concentration of mind. Moral purity is the indispensable pre-requisite of knowledge of atman. Karma is not excluded from moral life.

* '''Concept of [[Dharma (धर्मः)|Dharma]]''' -  Atman can be realized by one who does practice self-control, desirelessness, and concentration of mind. Moral purity is the indispensable pre-requisite of knowledge of atman. Karma is not excluded from moral life.

* '''Concept of Punarjanma''' - Bondage is subjection to Saṃsāra due to attachment to results or fruits of actions.  Death and rebirth, is cyclical and results from attachment to karmaphala and Nishkama Karma leads one to escape this Punarjama cycle. Punarjanma is again a fundamental concept widely accepted and discussed in many ancient Indian texts.

* '''Concept of Punarjanma''' - Bondage is subjection to Saṃsāra due to attachment to results or fruits of actions.  Death and rebirth, is cyclical and results from attachment to karmaphala and Nishkama Karma leads one to escape this Punarjama cycle. Punarjanma is again a fundamental concept widely accepted and discussed in many ancient Indian texts.

* '''Concept of Moksha''' - Liberation is deliverance from the punarjanma cycle leads to Moksha. It is regarded as the highest aim of human life.  

* '''Concept of [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|Moksha]]''' - Liberation is deliverance from the punarjanma cycle leads to Moksha. It is regarded as the highest aim of human life.

To attain the highest goal of human life, the successive stages in the realization are summarized as<ref name=":5" />:

To attain the highest goal of human life, the successive stages in the realization are summarized as<ref name=":5" />:

* Realization of the absolute truth/reality of the Supreme Entity alone, and not ‘person’ or ‘thing’ as such.

* Realization of the absolute truth/reality of the Supreme Entity alone, and not ‘person’ or ‘thing’ as such.

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'', which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''Parinamavada'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''Parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''Vivartavada'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman.   

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'', which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''Parinamavada'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''Parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''Vivartavada'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman.<ref name=":5" />  

=== Differences Among Vedanta Sampradayas ===

=== Differences Among Vedanta Sampradayas ===

The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the Vedanta school of Hinduism. The concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, underwent profound development with the thoughts of Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.

The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various Sampradayas or sub-schools of the Vedanta Darshana. The critique of various Acharyas about Vedanta philosophy may broadly be grouped under eight headings: 

 

# The nature of Consciousness

# The Nirguna Brahman (Attributeless/unqualified Absolute)

# The doctrine of Avidya

# Sadhana and Mukti

 

Each sampradaya differed from others in having specific viewpoints about one or more of the above concepts.  

====Bhedābheda====

====Bhedābheda====

'''Svabhavika-bhedabheda:''' Nimbarka, Nimbaditya or Niyamananda a Telugu Brahmana, revived the philosophy of earlier bhedabhedavadins such as Ashmarathya, Bhartrprapancha, and Yadavaprakasa along with his amendments and modifications. Also called Sanakasampradaya of Vaishnavism, it is greatly indebted to Ramanujacharya. Notably Nimbarka refers to the Shri and Brahma sampradayas of Ramanujacharya and Madhavacharya respectively.<ref name=":3" /> Nimbarka does not regard Brahman as purely formless and distinction-less as Bhaskara does. Bhaskara's Brahman is nirvisesha (closer to Advaita siddhanta), a pure unity or identity, but Nimbarka's Brahman is savisesha, always having internal natural differences, hence the school is called Svabhavika-bhedabheda. Jiva-jagat are never absolutely identical with Brahman (as in Advaita vedanta) and always retain their own individuality and separateness even during liberation and dissolution. Nimbarka regarded that the grace of Krishna generates devotion.<ref name=":7" /> This school is also referred to as Dvaitadvaita also.  

'''Svabhavika-bhedabheda:''' Nimbarka, Nimbaditya or Niyamananda a Telugu Brahmana, revived the philosophy of earlier bhedabhedavadins such as Ashmarathya, Bhartrprapancha, and Yadavaprakasa along with his amendments and modifications. Also called Sanakasampradaya of Vaishnavism, it is greatly indebted to Ramanujacharya. Notably Nimbarka refers to the Shri and Brahma sampradayas of Ramanujacharya and Madhavacharya respectively.<ref name=":3" /> Nimbarka does not regard Brahman as purely formless and distinction-less as Bhaskara does. Bhaskara's Brahman is nirvisesha (closer to Advaita siddhanta), a pure unity or identity, but Nimbarka's Brahman is savisesha, always having internal natural differences, hence the school is called Svabhavika-bhedabheda. Jiva-jagat are never absolutely identical with Brahman (as in Advaita vedanta) and always retain their own individuality and separateness even during liberation and dissolution. Nimbarka regarded that the grace of Krishna generates devotion.<ref name=":7" /> This school is also referred to as Dvaitadvaita also.  

'''Achintya-Bheda-Abheda:''' Founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference.'' The tradition of Achintya-bhedabheda is also commonly known as Gaudiya Vaishnavism, common in West Bengal elaborated by Baladeva. It is described as Achintya or inconceivable because the identity in difference is essentially indescribable and unthinkable due to the inconceivable power of Brahman or Shrikrishna.  The teachings of Chaitanya are based mainly on the Bhagavata. Concept of Achintya is accepted to reconcile the apparent contradictions in the nature of Brahman. Jivas are innumerable and remain distinct even in liberation. They emanate from Brahman like rays from the sun and are absolutely dependent on Him. Bhakti is the sole means of liberation.<ref name=":3" />

'''Achintya-Bheda-Abheda:''' Founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference.'' The tradition of Achintya-bhedabheda is also commonly known as Gaudiya Vaishnavism, common in West Bengal elaborated by Baladeva. It is described as Achintya or inconceivable because the identity in difference is essentially indescribable and unthinkable due to the inconceivable power of Brahman or Shrikrishna.  The teachings of Chaitanya are based mainly on the Bhagavata. Concept of Achintya is accepted to reconcile the apparent contradictions in the nature of Brahman. Jivas are innumerable and remain distinct even in liberation. They emanate from Brahman like rays from the sun and are absolutely dependent on Him. Bhakti is the sole means of liberation. Krishna and Radha are dual and distinct as the lover and the beloved and yet are non-dual in their essence.<ref name=":3" />

====Shuddhādvaita====

====Shuddhādvaita====

Shuddhadvaita was propounded by Vallabhacharya, a Telugu Brahmana. This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to Goloka' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "Pushtimarga" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind". According to this school Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankaracharya, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]] only. Brahman is independent reality and is identified with Shrikrishna. His essence is Sat-chit- ananda. Jiva and jagat are the real manifestations of Brahman and the relationship is that of whole and parts. Vallabha differs from Shankaracharya in that he proposes the Maya or Avidya is the power of Brahman through which he manifests the world but it is neither an illusion nor an error. It is real manifestation, ''Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda'', where the universe is a natural emanation from Brahman which does not involve a notion or change (parinama) and is not an unreal appearance (vivarta). The individual soul ([[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] or jivatma) and Brahman are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. Jiva is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref name=":3" />

Shuddhadvaita was propounded by Vallabhacharya, a Telugu Brahmana. This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to Goloka' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "Pushtimarga." Pusti means the divine grace which dawns through devotion and is the cause of liberation.<ref name=":3" />  

[[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: अद्वैत वेदान्त {{IPA-sa|əd̪ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ɑːnt̪ə|}}) was propounded by [[Adi Shankara]] (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru [[Gaudapada]], who described [[Ajativada]]. It is a<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&pg=PR7 "Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta"] By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm |title=Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Class.uidaho.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyon3IOpX-AC&pg=PA319&lpg=PA319 "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra,"] By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref> sub-school of the [[Vedānta]] (literally, ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', [[Sanskrit]]) school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction,"] By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3</ref>

Brahman is the independent reality and is identified with Shrikrishna. The world is said to be the sport (līlā) of Krishna, whose essence is ''Sat-Chit-Ananda'' or, "existence knowledge and bliss". According to this school Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankaracharya, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]] only. [[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] and jagat are the real manifestations of Brahman and the relationship is that of whole and parts.  

[[Vishishtadvaita]] was propounded by [[Rāmānuja]] (1017–1137 CE) and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of [[Brahman]], and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the [[Brahman]] is asserted to have attributes ([[Saguna brahman]]), including the individual conscious souls and matter. [[Brahman]], matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds [[Bhakti]] or devotion to God visualized as [[Vishnu]] to be the path to liberation. [[Māyā]] is seen as the creative power of God.<ref name="Vedanta" />{{refn|group=note|[[Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita]] was propounded by Sri [[Srinivasa Deekshitulu]] (950 A.D.). It is primarily related to [[Vaikhanasa]] School of thought (based on Taittiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras. It is strictly followed by the original priests of the celebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day. It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala forms. To meditate on the nishkala aspect of Brahman, the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This school propounds 'Archana' (Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana' (knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to liberation. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman is Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu must be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tirumala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the implementation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.<ref>Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam by Ubhaya Vedanta Pravartaka Srinivasa Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sariraka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri Vikhanas Trust, Tirumala 2004</ref>}}

Vallabhacharya differs from Shankaracharya in that he proposes the Maya or Avidya is the power of Brahman through which he manifests the world but it is neither an illusion nor an error. It is real manifestation, ''Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda'', where the universe is a natural emanation from Brahman which does not involve a notion or change (parinama) and is not an unreal appearance (vivarta). The individual soul ([[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] or jivatma) and Brahman are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. Jiva is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda; being clouded by the force of ignorance (‘avidya’) it is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref name=":3" />  

[[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhvacharya|Madhwāchārya]] (1199–1278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his various incarnations like [[Krishna]], [[Narasimha]], [[Venkateswara|Srinivāsa]] etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards [[Brahman]], all individual souls (''jīvātman''s) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates [[Bhakti]] as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively.

====Advaita Vedānta====

Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta" />

 

====Advaita Vedanta====

Advaita Vedanta holds that Shuddha-chaitanya or Pure Consciousness has three forms

Advaita Vedanta holds that Shuddha-chaitanya or Pure Consciousness has three forms

# as associated with the mental state/antahkarana (pramana) - Pramana-chaitanyam

# as associated with the mental state/antahkarana (pramana) - Pramana-chaitanyam

Perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the sense organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.<ref>Swami Madhavananda. trans., ''Vedanta Paribhasha of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra.'' Howrah: The Ramakrishna Mission Sarada Pitha. pp 14, 15</ref> Advaita Vedanta expounds that Brahman is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name="acdas">Das, A. C. (1952). [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics]. ''Philosophy East and West'', ''2''(2), 144–154. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/1397304</nowiki></ref> it is pure being, non-dual, immutable, eternal and devoid of all attributes. , no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same. The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and adhyatmik. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6</ref> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name="acdas" /> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.

According to Advaita, all six sources of knowledge-  Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (comparison), Shabda (verbal testimony), and Anupalabdhi (non-apprehension). Perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the sense organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.<ref>Swami Madhavananda. trans., ''Vedanta Paribhasha of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra.'' Howrah: The Ramakrishna Mission Sarada Pitha. pp 14, 15</ref> Advaita Vedanta expounds the qualities or attributes of Brahman as follows.<ref name="acdas">Das, A. C. (1952). [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics]. ''Philosophy East and West'', ''2''(2), 144–154. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/1397304</nowiki></ref>

 

# It is pure being, non-dual, immutable, eternal and devoid of all attributes.

# Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and beyond.  

# ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists, both material and instrumental cause of this creation.  

# It can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.  

# The knowledge of Brahman that [[Shruti (श्रुतिः)|shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.

# Brahman is not outside, as a separate, dual entity, but is within each person.

# Brahman is beyond subject-object relation, both of which are transcended in higher states of consciousness.

# Brahman is Sat-chit-ananda (Tait. Upan. 2.1.1) or existence, knowledge and bliss. Thus, Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature.

 

The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self ([[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] or ''[[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification termed Avidya or [[Maya (माया)|Maya]]. When the veil of Avidya is removed, the Atman is realized as identical with Brahman. This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and "sarvam khavidam brahma" all is ''Brahman''.  Summarizing the major tenets of Advaita Vedanta <ref name=":3" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/63552/4/Unit-4.pdf</ref>

 

# The purpose of philosophy is to help [[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] (the human being) achieve Moksha purusartha i.e., to free himself from the bondage (Samsara) of  Karma leading to the cycle of births and death. 

# The bondage, according to Advaita, is the result of ‘Avidya’, or ignorance, a universal human problem. It  emphasizes that the self (atman) is never bound, and is eternally liberated.  

# Avidya or ignorance can only be overcome by acquiring ‘vidya’ or 'jnana', that is the knowledge. It is acquired by knowing at the deep psychological levels that individual distinctions are false, especially the distinction between the knower and the known.

# The awareness or Sakshi is defined as the real self of the Jiva, which is the real knowledge, free from subject-object distinctions, and is pure consciousness (chit, anubhava)

# The same real self, is not different from the ultimate universal principle, the Brahman. If the ‘Brahman’ was conceived as an object of self-awareness, then it would involve a subject-object relation, which is at the base of “avidya”, that is ignorance. 

# Truth is that knowledge which is never contradicted or set aside as false and is not affected (badha). By the above criteria, “Brahman” is the only ultimate reality, since it is not affected by ignorance, and it is one thing not sublatable, since sublation depends on consciousness. 

# Pure consciousness is experienced during deep sleep. Since we awake refreshed, it is inferred that the true consciousness is also ultimate bliss.  

 

Visishtadvaita was propounded by Rāmānuja (1017–1137 CE) who says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the Brahman is determinate and asserted to have attributes (Saguna or savisesha). All knowledge involves distinctions and there is no undifferentiated pure consciousness, identity is always qualified by difference. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds Bhakti or devotion to God visualized as Vishnu to be the path to liberation. Māyā is seen as the creative power of God.

The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to [[Adi Shankara]], a proponent of [[Advaita Vedanta]], the knowledge of Brahman that [[shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref>

According to Visishtadvaita, there are three sources of knowledge- Shabda (verbal testimony), Pratyaksha (perception) and Anumana (inference). All the three sources should have character, in order to establish a proof. Some important tenets of Visishtadvaita<ref name=":10" />

In [[Advaita Vedanta]], nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality.<ref name="acdas" /><ref name="williamw">William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, (Accessed on: June 13, 2015)</ref> Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature. In this respect, Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools.<ref>[Sangeetha Menon (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta''], Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

# Striking feature of this philosophy is the attempt to unite personal theism with the philosophy of the Absolute.<ref>Hiriyanna, M. () Outlines of Indian Philosophy</ref>

# He refutes the basic tenet of Advaita, that Supreme reality is unqualified (Nirvisesha). This cannot be proved, as all proofs are based on the assumption of qualified character. Vedic and other texts do not speak about the unqualified character of the supreme reality.  

# The Advaita school holds that the unqualified nature of the absolute reality can be experienced directly. However, even in direct experience, some traits of Supreme reality have to be qualified (Savikalpa), for experiencing according to Ramanujacharya.

# Regarding perception, it is held that any perception, if it is to manifest, has to have character (Savikalpa pratyakhya). Hence, Ramanuja holds that perception without character (nirvisesha) is not possible.

# Inference is based on perception and hence it has also revealed a thing with certain characteristics. Hence, it cannot remain unqualified.

# Shankara’s assertion is that perception relates to pure beings and pure beings alone. If that were to be true, then characteristic differences are necessary to distinguish one from the other, like saying, ‘this is a jug’ and ‘this is a cloth’. If all objects are perceived to be false, there can be no differences between the objects.  

# Shankara states that the world looks like a manifold entity due to ‘dosha’, or ‘Avidya’ (defect). Ramanuja states that Avidya needs support, and cannot exist by itself. It cannot exist in individual souls, as they themselves are results of ‘Avidya’.

# Ramanujacharya holds that all knowledge is real. He gives the example of conch shell and silver. If an illusion has to appear, it has to be like another reality. A conch shell cannot appear like imaginary silver.

====Dvaita====

====Visishtadvaita Vedanta====

[[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhvacharya|Madhwāchārya]] (1199–1278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his various incarnations like [[Krishna]], [[Narasimha]], [[Venkateswara|Srinivāsa]] etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards [[Brahman]], all individual souls (''jīvātman''s) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates [[Bhakti]] as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively.

The Brahman of [[Visishtadvaita]] is not exactly same as individual Atman, rather it is synonymous with [[Narayana]], the transcendent and immanent reality. Brahman or Narayana is [[Saguna Brahman]], one with attributes, one with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless [[Nirguna Brahman]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta" />

====Dvaita Vedanta====

  Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.

  Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}