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Philosophy is the search for an experience of Reality. The subject-matter of Indian philosophy, however, is not the entire Reality. It is more about the true nature of the Self. One of the postulates of Indian philosophy is that the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], loosely translated as soul in abrahmic texts, is the core of Self and its intrinsic nature full of [[Sukha and Ananda (सुखानन्दश्च)|Ananda]]. The realization of the true and native nature of the Self is another name for [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]]. Vedanta adopted ideas from other Darshanas such as [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga]] and [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]], and, over time, became the most prominent of the Astika Darshanas, influencing the sampradayas or diverse traditions within it. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta, of which Advaita Vedanta, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita and Bhedabheda are the best known.  

Philosophy is the search for an experience of Reality. The subject-matter of Indian philosophy, however, is not the entire Reality. It is more about the true nature of the Self. One of the postulates of Indian philosophy is that the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], loosely translated as soul in abrahmic texts, is the core of Self and its intrinsic nature full of [[Sukha and Ananda (सुखानन्दश्च)|Ananda]]. The realization of the true and native nature of the Self is another name for [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]]. Vedanta adopted ideas from other Darshanas such as [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga]] and [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]], and, over time, became the most prominent of the Astika Darshanas, influencing the sampradayas or diverse traditions within it. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta, of which Advaita Vedanta, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita and Bhedabheda are the best known.  

The Self to be realized is usually confused with the Ahamkara or the individual ego that we are aware of. We mistake the ego for the true Self and that is the cause of our suffering. The ignorance of the true nature of the Self, which is free from all impurities, sorrows, etc., is the cause of bondage. This ignorance is called by different names. Nyaya calls it mithya jnana (illusory knowledge). [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] calls it lack of discernment between [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]] and [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakrti]]. Advaita calls it [[Maya (माया)|Maya]] (illusion). Self-realization is achieved either through self-culture, or as in some forms of Vedanta, through divine grace.<ref name=":2">Nagaraja Rao, P. (1958) ''Introduction to Vedanta.'' Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</ref>

The Self to be realized is usually confused with the Ahamkara or the individual ego that we are aware of. We mistake the ego for the true Self and that is the cause of our suffering. The ignorance of the true nature of the Self, which is free from all impurities, sorrows, etc., is the cause of bondage. This ignorance is called by different names. Nyaya calls it mithya jnana (illusory knowledge). [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] calls it lack of discernment between [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]] and [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakrti]]. Advaita siddhanta calls it [[Maya (माया)|Maya]] (illusion). Self-realization is achieved either through self-culture, or as in some forms of Vedanta, through divine grace.<ref name=":2">Nagaraja Rao, P. (1958) ''Introduction to Vedanta.'' Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</ref>

All the Indian philosophical systems exhibit a twofold unity of outlook. There is first the “spiritual unity” in their outlook. This is brought out clearly by the common philosophical ideal of [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]], which is a spiritual experience, not an intellectual apprehension or an occult vision or a physical ecstasy. The second is the moral unity in outlook. All the systems, though they give differing accounts of moksha, are at one in holding that it cannot be attained by mere intellectual study.<ref name=":2" />

All the Indian philosophical systems exhibit a twofold unity of outlook. There is first the “spiritual unity” in their outlook. This is brought out clearly by the common philosophical ideal of [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]], which is a spiritual experience, not an intellectual apprehension or an occult vision or a physical ecstasy. The second is the moral unity in outlook. All the systems, though they give differing accounts of moksha, are at one in holding that it cannot be attained by mere intellectual study.<ref name=":2" />

Sivananda gives the following explanation:<blockquote>Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.</blockquote>

Sivananda gives the following explanation:<blockquote>Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.</blockquote>

=== Common Tenets of All Schools of Vedanta ===

=== Common Tenets of Darshanas and Vedanta ===

All the systems believe that the universe is a cosmos, but not a chaos. They postulate a central moral purpose as governing the universe. The universe is a moral order. There is a point in human life and purpose in the heart of the universe. The good that we do in this life is not without its reward. The evil takes its due toll from man. The universe is law abiding to the core. Moral life has its own purpose. As a corollary to this the systems postulate rebirth as well as pre-existence. They subscribe to the inevitable law of karma. [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]] points out that the individual is responsible for his acts and not a mysterious fate. The conditions of life are determined but not the will of the agent. The law of Karma applies to the conditions that are being determined and not to the agent. Vedanta envisages the concept of Moksha as the possibility of liberation from bondage in Karma cycle. Each school differs in their presentation of the Supreme Entity and the cause of delusion and attachment of an individual  in this world.<ref>Rao, Nagaraja P. (1943) ''The Schools of Vedanta''. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.22</ref>  

All the darshanik systems believe that the universe is a cosmos, but not a chaos. They postulate a central moral purpose as governing the universe. The universe is a moral order. There is a point in human life and purpose in the heart of the universe. The good that we do in this life is not without its reward. The evil takes its due toll from man. The universe is law abiding to the core. Moral life has its own purpose. As a corollary to this the systems postulate rebirth as well as pre-existence. They subscribe to the inevitable law of karma. [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]] points out that the individual is responsible for his acts and not a mysterious fate. The conditions of life are determined but not the will of the agent. The law of Karma applies to the conditions that are being determined and not to the agent. Vedanta envisages the concept of Moksha as the possibility of liberation from bondage in Karma cycle. Each school differs in their presentation of the Supreme Entity and the cause of delusion and attachment of an individual  in this world.<ref>Rao, Nagaraja P. (1943) ''The Schools of Vedanta''. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.22</ref>  

The chief subject matter of Vedanta in Brahma sutras involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning "revealing Brahman." The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], and the relation between Brahman and Jagat, the world. Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:   

The chief subject matter of Vedanta in Brahma sutras involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning "revealing Brahman." The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], and the relation between Brahman and Jagat, the world. Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:   

* '''Concept of Brahman''' - Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthanatrayi]].'' It involves an understanding of Reality, the ultimate Truth, knowledge of Brahman (Self), experience of consciousness, relationship and causality of man and universe, Avidya (ignorance), Maya (illusion) etc.

* '''Concept of Brahman''' - Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthanatrayi]].'' It involves an understanding of Reality, the ultimate Truth, knowledge of Brahman (Self), experience of consciousness, relationship and causality of man and universe, Avidya (ignorance), Maya (illusion) etc. All schools support this Supreme Entity though they differ in the way they express the qualities regarding Brahman.

* '''Concept of Atman''' - Atman is the transcendental background of both individual self and non-self, expressed as self or consciousness. The same reality is called from the subjective side as Atman and from the objective side as Brahman and both terms are used as synonyms.<ref name=":3" />

* '''Concept of Atman''' - Atman is the transcendental background of both individual self and non-self, expressed as self or consciousness. The same reality is called from the subjective side as Atman and from the objective side as Brahman and both terms are used as synonyms.<ref name=":3" /> All systems explain Atman, Jivatman, to support plurality of beings.

* '''Concept of Karma''' - Actions or karma help prepare the mind (Chittashuddhi) for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards are renounced. Actions, knowledge and devotion are three paths to attain knowledge of the self.

* '''Concept of Karma''' - Actions or karma help prepare the mind (Chittashuddhi) for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards are renounced. Actions, knowledge and devotion are three paths to attain knowledge of the self. Karma is intricately related to rewards of action such as Papa (demerits) and Punya (merits) which are adrstha or unseen effects.

* '''Concept of Punarjanma''' - Bondage is subjection to Saṃsāra due to attachment to results or fruits of actions.  Death and rebirth, is cyclical and results from attachment to karmaphala and Nishkama Karma leads one to escape this Punarjama cycle.

* '''Concept of Punarjanma''' - Bondage is subjection to Saṃsāra due to attachment to results or fruits of actions.  Death and rebirth, is cyclical and results from attachment to karmaphala and Nishkama Karma leads one to escape this Punarjama cycle. Punarjanma is again a fundamental concept widely accepted and discussed in many ancient Indian texts.

* '''Concept of Moksha''' - Liberation is deliverance from the punarjanma cycle leads to Moksha.

* '''Concept of Moksha''' - Liberation is deliverance from the punarjanma cycle leads to Moksha. It is regarded as the highest aim of human life.  

To attain the highest goal of human life, the successive stages in the realization are summarized as<ref name=":5" />:—

To attain the highest goal of human life, the successive stages in the realization are summarized as<ref name=":5" />:

* Realization of the distinction between ‘person’ and ‘thing’.

* Realization of the distinction between ‘person’ and ‘thing’.

* Realization of the absolute truth/reality of the Supreme Entity alone, and not ‘person’ or ‘thing’ as such.

* Realization of the absolute truth/reality of the Supreme Entity alone, and not ‘person’ or ‘thing’ as such.

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'', which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''Parinamavada'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''Vivartavada'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman.   

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'', which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''Parinamavada'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''Parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''Vivartavada'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman.   

==Schools of Vedanta==

=== Differences among schools of Vedanta ===

===Bhedabheda===

The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the [[Vedanta]] school of Hinduism. The concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, underwent profound development with the thoughts of Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.

Bhedabheda (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference",<ref name="IEPbheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/ Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> existed as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda"/> but Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma Sūtra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> According to the Bhedābheda Vedānta schools the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman.<ref name="IEPbheda"/> [[Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Major names of this school are [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th-9th century),<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Rāmānuja’s teacher Yādavaprakāśa,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Nimbārka]] (13th century) who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Vallabha]] (1479–1531)<ref name="IEPbheda" /> who founded [[Shuddhadvaita]],<ref name="Washington">[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03-DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']</ref> [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Caitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" />{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="IEPbheda" />

According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' point of view,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "Numerous Indologists, including Surendranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as the most influential school of Vedanta before Sankara."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}}}

===Vedanta Sampradayas===

===Dvaitādvaita===

==== Bhedabheda ====

[[Dvaitādvaita]] was propounded by [[Nimbarka|Nimbārka]] (13th century), based upon [[Bhedabheda|Bhedābheda]], which was taught by [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]]. According to this school, the ''jīvātman'' is at once the same and yet different from Brahman.  The jiva relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita from another. In this school, God is visualized as [[Krishna]].<ref name="Vedanta"/>

Bhedabheda (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference", existed as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/ Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> but Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma Sūtra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> According to the Bhedābheda Vedānta schools the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Major names of this school are [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th-9th century),<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Rāmānuja’s teacher Yādavaprakāśa,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Nimbārka]] (13th century) who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Vallabha]] (1479–1531)<ref name="IEPbheda" /> who founded [[Shuddhadvaita]],<ref name="Washington">[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03-DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']</ref> [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Caitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" />{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="IEPbheda" />

According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' point of view,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.

[[Shuddhadvaita]] was propounded by [[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE). This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to [[Goloka]]' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "[[Pushtimarga]]" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind".<ref name="Vedanta"/>On the basis of quadruple Proof Corpus (pramāna catuṣṭaya) comprising [[Sruti|Srutis]] and [[Smriti|Smrutis]], [[Brahmasutra]], [[Gita]] and [[Bhagvatam|Shrimadbhagvata]], Vallabhacharya propounded the philosophy of [[shuddhadvaita]] brahmvaad (pure non-dualism), according to which Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankar, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman]] only. Brahman has created the world without connection with or help from any external agency such as Maya, which itself is his power. Brahman manifests Himself through the world. [[Śruti|Srutis]] say Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world (jagat).<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2), Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is how Vallabh’s shuddhadvaita is known as ‘Unmodified transformation’ or ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’, while Shankar’s Advaita or Kevaladvaita is known as ‘[[Vivartavada|Vivartavāda]]’. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a ‘part’. The individual soul ([[Jiva|Jeeva]] or jeevatma) and God are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. The soul is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref>Brahmavād Saṅgraha, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref> 

===Achintya-Bheda-Abheda===

 

 

====Achintya-Bheda-Abheda====

Founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534). Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'', in relation to the power creation and creator, ([[Krishna]]), [[svayam bhagavan]].{{sfn|Kaviraja|year unknown}} and also between God and his energies within the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] religious tradition. In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates as 'one-ness'.  It can be best understood as integration of strict dualist ([[Dvaita]]) view of [[Madhvacharya]] and qualified monism [[Vishishtadvaita]] of [[Ramanujacharya]] while rejecting absolute monism [[Advaita]] of [[Adi Sankara]].

Founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534). Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'', in relation to the power creation and creator, ([[Krishna]]), [[svayam bhagavan]].{{sfn|Kaviraja|year unknown}} and also between God and his energies within the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] religious tradition. In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates as 'one-ness'.  It can be best understood as integration of strict dualist ([[Dvaita]]) view of [[Madhvacharya]] and qualified monism [[Vishishtadvaita]] of [[Ramanujacharya]] while rejecting absolute monism [[Advaita]] of [[Adi Sankara]].

===Advaita Vedānta===

====Advaita Vedānta====

[[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: अद्वैत वेदान्त {{IPA-sa|əd̪ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ɑːnt̪ə|}}) was propounded by [[Adi Shankara]] (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru [[Gaudapada]], who described [[Ajativada]]. It is a<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&pg=PR7 "Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta"] By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm |title=Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Class.uidaho.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyon3IOpX-AC&pg=PA319&lpg=PA319 "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra,"] By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref> sub-school of the [[Vedānta]] (literally, ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', [[Sanskrit]]) school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction,"] By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3</ref>

[[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: अद्वैत वेदान्त {{IPA-sa|əd̪ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ɑːnt̪ə|}}) was propounded by [[Adi Shankara]] (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru [[Gaudapada]], who described [[Ajativada]]. It is a<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&pg=PR7 "Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta"] By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm |title=Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Class.uidaho.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyon3IOpX-AC&pg=PA319&lpg=PA319 "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra,"] By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref> sub-school of the [[Vedānta]] (literally, ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', [[Sanskrit]]) school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction,"] By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3</ref>

===Vishishtadvaita===

====Vishishtadvaita====

[[Vishishtadvaita]] was propounded by [[Rāmānuja]] (1017–1137 CE) and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of [[Brahman]], and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the [[Brahman]] is asserted to have attributes ([[Saguna brahman]]), including the individual conscious souls and matter. [[Brahman]], matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds [[Bhakti]] or devotion to God visualized as [[Vishnu]] to be the path to liberation. [[Māyā]] is seen as the creative power of God.<ref name="Vedanta"/>{{refn|group=note|[[Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita]] was propounded by Sri [[Srinivasa Deekshitulu]] (950 A.D.). It is primarily related to [[Vaikhanasa]] School of thought (based on Taittiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras. It is strictly followed by the original priests of the celebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day. It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala forms. To meditate on the nishkala aspect of Brahman, the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This school propounds 'Archana' (Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana' (knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to liberation. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman is Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu must be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tirumala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the implementation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.<ref>Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam by Ubhaya Vedanta Pravartaka Srinivasa Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sariraka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri Vikhanas Trust, Tirumala 2004</ref>}}

[[Vishishtadvaita]] was propounded by [[Rāmānuja]] (1017–1137 CE) and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of [[Brahman]], and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the [[Brahman]] is asserted to have attributes ([[Saguna brahman]]), including the individual conscious souls and matter. [[Brahman]], matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds [[Bhakti]] or devotion to God visualized as [[Vishnu]] to be the path to liberation. [[Māyā]] is seen as the creative power of God.<ref name="Vedanta" />{{refn|group=note|[[Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita]] was propounded by Sri [[Srinivasa Deekshitulu]] (950 A.D.). It is primarily related to [[Vaikhanasa]] School of thought (based on Taittiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras. It is strictly followed by the original priests of the celebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day. It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala forms. To meditate on the nishkala aspect of Brahman, the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This school propounds 'Archana' (Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana' (knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to liberation. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman is Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu must be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tirumala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the implementation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.<ref>Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam by Ubhaya Vedanta Pravartaka Srinivasa Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sariraka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri Vikhanas Trust, Tirumala 2004</ref>}}

===Dvaita===

====Dvaita====

[[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhvacharya|Madhwāchārya]] (1199–1278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his various incarnations like [[Krishna]], [[Narasimha]], [[Venkateswara|Srinivāsa]] etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards [[Brahman]], all individual souls (''jīvātman''s) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates [[Bhakti]] as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively.

[[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhvacharya|Madhwāchārya]] (1199–1278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his various incarnations like [[Krishna]], [[Narasimha]], [[Venkateswara|Srinivāsa]] etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards [[Brahman]], all individual souls (''jīvātman''s) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates [[Bhakti]] as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively.

Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta"/>

Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta" />

==Schools of thought==

==Schools of thought==

===Vedanta===

===Vedanta===

 

====Advaita Vedanta====

====Advaita Vedanta====

Advaita Vedanta holds that Shuddha-chaitanya or Pure Consciousness has three forms

Advaita Vedanta holds that Shuddha-chaitanya or Pure Consciousness has three forms