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Line 38: − − == Karma Siddhantas in Darshanas == − As seen in the previous section, Karma according to the Vaiseshika darshana can be categorized under activities governed by physical laws of nature. Primarily described as "motion" or "movement", characteristics about Karma in Vaiseshika differ from those proposed in other Darshana shastras. According to general notion, the word ‘Karma’ generally refers to deeds done by a man, the actions he has taken, to act upon or implementing one’s firm faith and conviction, commitment and dedication towards any entity or object which one adores, admires, honours or reveres. The word ‘Kriti’ in the spiritual context with its various connotations refers to, righteous deeds and actions involving self restraint, observance of strict codes of conduct and morality, and the ability to focus and concentrate the mind upon the supreme Truth and absolute Reality or Brahman while doing all the deeds or taking all the worldly action in a detached and dispassionate manner.<ref>Gupta, Bina (2012) ''An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge and Freedom.'' New York: Routledge. (Pages 360)</ref> − − === Mimamsa Darshana === − Mimamsa Sutras were the first attempt to systematize Vedic interpretation, specifically the Karma-kanda of the Vedas. Thus their primary concern was the Karma or Yajnas of the Vedic texts. Mimamsa school construes all Vedic texts to center around some or other course of action either to be performed or shunned. Mimamsakas believe that actions done with a desire to get fruits cause repeated births. The disinterested performance of actions, without any desire for the results, exhausts accumulated karmas. A person free from karmas is not reborn; liberation thus stops punarjanmas by destroying all the accumulated karmas. Past karmas should be exhausted without any residue. Nitya and Naimittika (Obligatory and compulsory) karmas should be performed, and the non-performance of these acts would create demerit and result in suffering. Moksha is a state free from all kinds of Dukha (painful) experiences; it is a state in which Atman returns to its intrinsic nature, freedom from pain and suffering. Kumarilabhatta and his followers subscribe to jñana karma samuccaya, i.e., both knowledge and action lead to Moksha. Prabhakara school advocates actions as supreme and takes knowledge as the means to Moksha. − − === Vedanta Darshana === − Depending on the context, Karma according to Vedanta could mean (a) any act, irrespective of its nature; (b) a moral act, especially in the accepted ritualistic sense; and (c) accumulated results, i.e., unfructified fruits of all actions. Underlying these senses is the idea that a person by doing, by acting, creates something and shapes his/her destiny. − − Karma (action) and bhakti (devotion), at most can “bring about” the purification of the mind, but cannot “bring about” final Moksha jnana. Thus, devotion, leading an ethical life, or surrendering one’s actions to deities, while no doubt useful, cannot lead to the realization of the brahman, the ultimate goal of human endeavors. For Shankaracharya, the study of the Vedantic texts is necessary to destroy ignorance. However, prior to pursuing such a study, one should prepare one’s mind in order to comprehend the deeper meaning of these texts.<ref>Gupta, Bina (2012) ''An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge and Freedom.'' New York: Routledge. (Pages 237)</ref> − − According to Ramanujacharya, Karma (in the form of Yajnas and rites), Jnana and Bhakti are essential to get freedom from Avidya, Karma (actions of a Jiva) and even the embodied existence. Yajnas, the different rites and rituals prescribed in the Vedas i.e., karmakanda must be performed without any desire for the fruits. Such a performance destroys the accumulative effects of actions. The study of the Mimamsa texts (texts that explain how the rites and ceremonies should be performed) is necessary to ensure the right performance of duties. Accordingly, Acharya makes the study of Mimamsa a necessary prerequisite to the study of Vedanta. Line 84:
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→Karma Siddhantas in Darshanas
# It is said to be active when the substance moves from one position to another. In this process motion (Karma) is the common cause for any disjunction (Vibhaga or separation) of the substance (whole or part) from its previous position and conjunction (Samyoga or joining) with a new position. Motion is common cause of conjunction, disjunction and speed (or impetus) with which the substance moves.
# It is said to be active when the substance moves from one position to another. In this process motion (Karma) is the common cause for any disjunction (Vibhaga or separation) of the substance (whole or part) from its previous position and conjunction (Samyoga or joining) with a new position. Motion is common cause of conjunction, disjunction and speed (or impetus) with which the substance moves.
# Karma is not instantaneous. Vyomashiva clearly explains that motion is not instantaneous instead it is incremental. This is true even in a process like cooking the food where the food is neither cooked instantaneously nor does a change occur in its state until a minimum energy is expended. Such a minimum energy can be seen as similar to the threshold energy concept of today. The incremental nature of change in substances explained by Vyomashiva is what follows from today’s relativistic physics about no action being instantaneous.<ref>''Nyaya-Vaiseshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics'' by Roopa Hulikal Narayan </ref>
# Karma is not instantaneous. Vyomashiva clearly explains that motion is not instantaneous instead it is incremental. This is true even in a process like cooking the food where the food is neither cooked instantaneously nor does a change occur in its state until a minimum energy is expended. Such a minimum energy can be seen as similar to the threshold energy concept of today. The incremental nature of change in substances explained by Vyomashiva is what follows from today’s relativistic physics about no action being instantaneous.<ref>''Nyaya-Vaiseshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics'' by Roopa Hulikal Narayan </ref>
== कर्माणि भेदाः ॥ Types of Karma ==
== कर्माणि भेदाः ॥ Types of Karma ==
# '''लौकिक-कर्म ॥ Laukika Karma''' - These include the daily activities such as walking, running, reading etc.
# '''लौकिक-कर्म ॥ Laukika Karma''' - These include the daily activities such as walking, running, reading etc.
#'''नित्य-कर्म ॥ Nitya Karma''' (Regular rituals) नित्यानि - अकरणे प्रत्यवाय सधानानी संध्यावन्दनादीनी । (Veda. Sara. 1.9)<ref name=":2">Swami Nikhilananda (1931) Vedantasara of Sadananda, With Introduction, Text, English Translation and Comments. Almora: Advaita Ashrama (Pages 5-7)</ref> Include the daily dharmik activities such as devata puja, [[Sandhyavandana (सन्ध्यावन्दनम्)|sandhyavandana]]. According to Mimamsakas these rituals are obligatory and therefore not performing them produces pratyavaya in the sense of harm or papa (पापम्) to those who are supposed to perform them. [[Panchamahayajnas (पञ्चमहायज्ञाः)|Panchamahayajnas]] are included in this category. Nityakarma does not include daily duties, it also includes regular/periodic scheduled karmas such as Amavasya tarpana, and Grahana karmas. Some '''nitya karmas''' include:
#'''नित्य-कर्म ॥ Nitya Karma''' (Regular rituals) नित्यानि - अकरणे प्रत्यवाय सधानानी संध्यावन्दनादीनी । (Veda. Sara. 1.9)<ref name=":2">Swami Nikhilananda (1931) ''Vedantasara of Sadananda, With Introduction, Text, English Translation and Comments''. Almora: Advaita Ashrama (Pages 5-7)</ref> Include the daily dharmik activities such as devata puja, [[Sandhyavandana (सन्ध्यावन्दनम्)|sandhyavandana]]. According to Mimamsakas these rituals are obligatory and therefore not performing them produces pratyavaya in the sense of harm or papa (पापम्) to those who are supposed to perform them. [[Panchamahayajnas (पञ्चमहायज्ञाः)|Panchamahayajnas]] are included in this category. Nityakarma does not include daily duties, it also includes regular/periodic scheduled karmas such as Amavasya tarpana, and Grahana karmas. Some '''nitya karmas''' include:
#*Snana (bathing)
#*Snana (bathing)
#*[[Sandhyavandana (सन्ध्यावन्दनम्)|Sandhyavandana]]
#*[[Sandhyavandana (सन्ध्यावन्दनम्)|Sandhyavandana]]
#'''निषिद्ध-कर्म॥Nishiddha Karma''' (forbidden actions) निषिद्धनिषिद्धानि '''-''' नरकाद्यनिष्टसाधनानि ब्राह्मणहननादीनि । (Veda. Sara. 1.8)'''<ref name=":2" />''' Actions such as the slaying of a Brahmin etc., which bring about undesired results as going to Naraka (for punishments) are forbidden acts.
#'''निषिद्ध-कर्म॥Nishiddha Karma''' (forbidden actions) निषिद्धनिषिद्धानि '''-''' नरकाद्यनिष्टसाधनानि ब्राह्मणहननादीनि । (Veda. Sara. 1.8)'''<ref name=":2" />''' Actions such as the slaying of a Brahmin etc., which bring about undesired results as going to Naraka (for punishments) are forbidden acts.
#'''उपासना''' '''॥ Upasana Karma''' (Mental activities) उपासनानि - सगुणब्रह्मविषयमानसव्यापार-रूपाणि शाण्डिल्यविद्यादीनि । (Veda. Sara. 1.12)'''<ref name=":2" />''' Mental activities relating to Saguna Brahma - such as are described in the Shandilya Vidya are termed Upasanas or devotional activities.
#'''उपासना''' '''॥ Upasana Karma''' (Mental activities) उपासनानि - सगुणब्रह्मविषयमानसव्यापार-रूपाणि शाण्डिल्यविद्यादीनि । (Veda. Sara. 1.12)'''<ref name=":2" />''' Mental activities relating to Saguna Brahma - such as are described in the Shandilya Vidya are termed Upasanas or devotional activities.
== Karma Siddhantas ==
As seen in the previous sections, Karma according to the Vaiseshika darshana can be categorized as activities governed by physical laws of nature. Primarily described as "motion" or "movement", characteristics about Karma in Vaiseshika differ from those proposed in other Darshana shastras. According to general notion, the word ‘Karma’ generally refers to deeds done by a man, the actions he has taken. The word ‘Kriti’ in the spiritual context with its various connotations refers to, righteous deeds and actions involving self restraint, observance of strict codes of conduct and morality, and the ability to focus and concentrate the mind upon the supreme Truth and absolute Reality or Brahman while doing all the deeds or taking all the worldly action in a detached and dispassionate manner. In this section we will observe how karma is treated in various texts.
=== Shvetashvatara Upanishad ===
The karma chakra or the '''giant wheel of karma''' and their consequences are described in the Shvetashvara Upanishad. According to this text, it is to be known that the through "karma of creation" various forms of [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|Panchamahabhutas]] (prthvi, aapas, tejas, vayu, akasha) originate by the command of the all-pervading, all-knowing entity, who is the master of the Gunas, and the creator of time. After setting the creation in motion and withdrawing Himself from it (विनिवर्त्य), he unites the Atman with the Panchamahabhutas and other tattvas.<ref>''Shvetashvara Upanishad.'' Gorakhpur: Gita Press (Pages 233-234)</ref><blockquote>येनावृतं नित्यमिदं हि सर्वं ज्ञः कालकारो गुणी सर्वविद्यः । तेनेशितं कर्म विवर्तते ह पृथिव्यप्तेजोनिलखानि चिन्त्यम् ॥ २ ॥
तत्कर्म कृत्वा विनिवर्त्य भूयस्तत्त्वस्य तत्त्वेन समेत्य योगम् । एकेन द्वाभ्यां त्रिभिरष्टभिर्वा कालेन चैवात्मगुणैश्च सूक्ष्मैः ॥ ३ ॥ (Shvet. Upan. 6.2-3)<ref>Shvetashvatara Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 See Text])</ref></blockquote>We may note here that Karma or action started with the act of creation of the universe.
=== Mimamsa Darshana ===
Mimamsa Sutras were the first attempt to systematize Vedic interpretation, specifically the Karma-kanda of the Vedas. Thus their primary concern was the Karma or Yajnas of the Vedic texts. Mimamsa school construes all Vedic texts to center around some or other course of action either to be performed or shunned. Mimamsakas believe that actions done with a desire to get fruits cause repeated births. The disinterested performance of actions, without any desire for the results, exhausts accumulated karmas. A person free from karmas is not reborn; liberation thus stops punarjanmas by destroying all the accumulated karmas. Past karmas should be exhausted without any residue. Nitya and Naimittika (Obligatory and compulsory) karmas should be performed, and the non-performance of these acts would create demerit and result in suffering. Moksha is a state free from all kinds of Dukha (painful) experiences; it is a state in which Atman returns to its intrinsic nature, freedom from pain and suffering. Kumarilabhatta and his followers subscribe to jñana karma samuccaya, i.e., both knowledge and action lead to Moksha. Prabhakara school advocates actions as supreme and takes knowledge as the means to Moksha.
=== Vedanta Darshana ===
Depending on the context, Karma according to Vedanta could mean (a) any act, irrespective of its nature; (b) a moral act, especially in the accepted ritualistic sense; and (c) accumulated results, i.e., unfructified fruits of all actions. Underlying these senses is the idea that a person by doing, by acting, creates something and shapes his/her destiny.
Karma (action) and bhakti (devotion), at most can “bring about” the purification of the mind, but cannot “bring about” final Moksha jnana. Thus, devotion, leading an ethical life, or surrendering one’s actions to deities, while no doubt useful, cannot lead to the realization of the brahman, the ultimate goal of human endeavors. For Shankaracharya, the study of the Vedantic texts is necessary to destroy ignorance. However, prior to pursuing such a study, one should prepare one’s mind in order to comprehend the deeper meaning of these texts.<ref>Gupta, Bina (2012) ''An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge and Freedom.'' New York: Routledge. (Pages 237)</ref>
According to Ramanujacharya, Karma (in the form of Yajnas and rites), Jnana and Bhakti are essential to get freedom from Avidya, Karma (actions of a Jiva) and even the embodied existence. Yajnas, the different rites and rituals prescribed in the Vedas i.e., karmakanda must be performed without any desire for the fruits. Such a performance destroys the accumulative effects of actions. The study of the Mimamsa texts (texts that explain how the rites and ceremonies should be performed) is necessary to ensure the right performance of duties. Accordingly, Acharya makes the study of Mimamsa a necessary prerequisite to the study of Vedanta.
=== Shrimad Bhagavad Gita ===
In Bhagavadgita, there is a whole section devoted to Karma Yoga. There is a difference between mere karma (action) from karma yoga (action as a spiritual discipline). Karma is action, a deed. Activity is seen everywhere, both in physical nature and in man. The body cannot be kept alive if one remains inactive. The preservation of Rta, the social order, too, demands constant and vigilant action. Even spritual disciplines, such as prayer, worship, and meditation, are forms of activity. Though actionlessness may characterize a certain form of spiritual experience, it cannot be attained without previous practice of the discipline of action.
== Purpose of Karmas ==
== Purpose of Karmas ==