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Therapeutic activity of herbs or food articles or any other medicinal substance is known as Karma (Samskrit: कर्म) in Ayurveda. The term Karma literally means action, work, deed. Thus activity carried out by substances is called as karma. The karma of any substance decides what kind of change it will bring out in the body when it is consumed. This change is also dependent of few other factors like rasa, guna, veeryam, vipaka and prabhava of that substance. However there exists a certain relationship between karma and other attributes of that substance. karma of any substance depends upon its rasa, veeryam, vipaka and prabhava. Substances with certain rasa or veerya have a specific type of karma or therapeutic activity. Thus many a times, karma of a substance is a gross product of its other attributes like rasa, veerya etc.  

Therapeutic activity of herbs or food articles or any other medicinal substance (द्रव्यम्) is known as Karma (Samskrit: कर्म) in Ayurveda. The term Karma literally means action, work, deed. Thus activity carried out by substances is called as karma. The karma of any substance decides what kind of change it will bring out in the body when it is consumed. This change is also dependent of few other factors like [[rasa (रसः)]], guna (गुणाः), [[veeryam (वीर्यम्)]], [[vipaka (विपाकः)]] and [[prabhava (प्रभावः)]] of that substance. However there exists a certain relationship between karma and other attributes of that substance. karma of any substance depends upon its rasa, veeryam, vipaka and prabhava. Substances with certain rasa or veerya have a specific type of karma or therapeutic activity. Thus many a times, karma of a substance is a gross product of its other attributes like rasa, veerya etc.  

== Etymology ==

== Etymology ==

That which is done is called as karma. karma here is the action of a dravya(drug).

That which is done is called as karma. karma here is the action of a dravya(drug).

Karma is one of the [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padartha]] amongst the 6 [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padarthas]] (dravya, guna, karma, samanya, vishesha and samavaya) explained in [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaisheshika darshana]] and [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|Ayurveda]]. Any mechanism or activity which yields a certain outcome is termed as karma.

Karma is one of the [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padartha (पदार्थाः)]] amongst the 6 [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|padarthas]] (dravya, guna, karma, samanya, vishesha and samavaya) explained in [[Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)|Vaisheshika darshana]] and [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|Ayurveda]]. Any mechanism or activity which yields a certain outcome is termed as karma.

== Definition ==

== Definition ==

Tarkasamgraha, a treatise based of nyaya and vaisheshika [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|darshanas]], has defined karma as belows,<blockquote>चलनात्मकं कर्म। (Tarkasamgraha)<ref name=":0">Tarkasamgraha by Annambhatta [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Karmadilakshana-prakaranam]</ref></blockquote>Any kind of movement is identified as karma. Fundamentally it is believed to be of 5 types.

Tarkasamgraha, a treatise based of nyaya and vaisheshika [[Ayurveda and Darshanas (आयुर्वेदः दर्शनानि च)|darshanas]], has defined karma as belows,<blockquote>चलनात्मकं कर्म। (Tarkasamgraha)<ref name=":0">Tarkasamgraha by Annambhatta [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Karmadilakshana-prakaranam]</ref></blockquote>Any kind of movement is identified as karma. Fundamentally it is believed to be of 5 types based on the direction of movement of/in object in space e.g. upward, downward etc.  

The movement which is initiated by any effort is called as karma(action)

In Charaka Samhita, karma is defined as below,<blockquote>संयोगे च विभागे च कारणं द्रव्यमाश्रितम्| कर्तव्यस्य क्रिया कर्म कर्म नान्यदपेक्षते (Char. Samh. 1.52)<ref>Charaka Samhita (Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 1 Sutra 52)</ref></blockquote>Meaning: That which is responsible for amalgamation and separation of a dravya (drug) composition. That transformation which happens in dravya is due to karma, that specific activity is termed as karma. The movement which is initiated by any effort is called as karma(action).

When the term karma is mentioned in our Ayurvedic treatises, it mainly refers to the action of the dravya in our body.

When the term karma is mentioned in our Ayurvedic treatises, it mainly refers to the action of the dravya in our body. However, Ayurveda does identify karma as deeds of this life and past life in the context of topics like [[Mrutyu (मृत्युः)|Mrtyu]], [[Ayu (आयुः)|Ayu]] etc.  

== The concept of Karma according to Darshana Shastras ==

== The concept of Karma according to Darshana Shastras ==

Karma is mentioned as one of the shad padhartha (dravya,guna, karma, samanya vishesha and samavaya)  

Karma is mentioned as one of the shad padartha (dravya, guna, karma, samanya vishesha and samavaya) <ref>Charaka Samhita ([https://niimh.nic.in/ebooks/ecaraka/?mod=read&h=padArthA Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 1 Sutra 28-29])</ref> or Sapta padarthas <ref name=":0" />

According to vaisheshika darshana,

According to vaisheshika darshana,

Karma is also “aguna” which means it is devoid of guna, here there is a difference drawn between guna and karma.

Karma is also “aguna” which means it is devoid of guna, here there is a difference drawn between guna and karma.

Karma exists wherever there is samyog (union) or vibhaga (separation) in a dravya. The activity which occurs because of sanyoga and vibhaga inside a dravya is known as karma.

Karma exists wherever there is samyog (union) or vibhaga (separation) in a dravya. The activity which occurs because of samyoga and vibhaga inside a dravya is known as karma.

As per the Vaisheshika darshana, the karma is of 5 types. These 5 types are based on the direction or flow of movement of the object within the space.  <blockquote>उत्क्षेपणापक्षेपणाकुञ्चनप्रसारणगमनानि पञ्च कर्माणि॥ <ref name=":0" /></blockquote>

As per the Vaisheshika darshana, the karma is of 5 types. These 5 types are based on the direction or flow of movement of the object within the space.  <blockquote>उत्क्षेपणापक्षेपणाकुञ्चनप्रसारणगमनानि पञ्च कर्माणि॥ <ref name=":0" /></blockquote>

=== Utkshepana ===

=== उत्क्षेपणम् ॥ Utkshepana ===

ऊर्ध्वदेशसंयोगहेतुरुत्क्षेपणम् | <ref name=":0" />

<blockquote>ऊर्ध्वदेशसंयोगहेतुरुत्क्षेपणम् | <ref name=":0" /></blockquote>Meaning, upward or ascendent movement as an action is termed as utkshepana.

 

Meaning, upward or ascendent movement as an action is termed as utkshepana.

 

 

 

 

Meaning, that which causes contraction or action of bringing together or closeness is termed as akunchana.

=== Prasarana ===

=== अपक्षेपणम् ॥ Apakshepana ===

विप्रकृष्टसंयोगहेतुः प्रसारणम्। <ref name=":0" />

<blockquote>अधोदेशसंयोगहेतुरपक्षेपणम्। <ref name=":0" /></blockquote>Meaning downward or descendent movement as an action is known as apakshepana.

Meaning, that which moves away or expands is termed as prasarana.

<blockquote>शरीरसंनिकृष्टसंयोगहेतुराकुञ्चनम् <ref name=":0" /></blockquote>Meaning, that which causes contraction or action of bringing together or closeness is termed as akunchana.

=== Gamana ===

=== प्रसारण ॥ Prasarana ===

अन्यत् सर्वं गमनम्। <ref name=":0" />

<blockquote>विप्रकृष्टसंयोगहेतुः प्रसारणम्। <ref name=":0" /></blockquote>Meaning, that which moves away or expands is termed as prasarana.

Meaning, that which includes all the random movements or actions apart from the utkshepana etc are termed as gamana.

<blockquote>अन्यत् सर्वं गमनम्। <ref name=":0" /></blockquote>Meaning, that which includes all the random movements or actions apart from the utkshepana etc are termed as gamana.

== Dravya and Karma relatioship ==

== Dravya and Karma relatioship ==

The dosha, have a certain panchamahbhuta permutation and combination. And when there is a pathological condition or disease formation, these elements are either in elevated form or decreased form. Thus, when a certain is drug(dravya) administered its karma or action is to bring these elements into balance. Thus, the karma(action) is dependent on the composition of the dravya(drug), so karma as a concept is widely and importantly applied for the treatment of various diseases and maintaining health.

[[Doshas (दोषाः)]], the principal body components responsible for health and illness, possess a certain [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|panchamahabhuta (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)]] composition. When there is a pathological condition or disease formation, these elements (mahabhutas) are either in elevated form or decreased form in that dosha. Thus, when a certain drug (dravya) is to be administered as a therapeutic agent, the one which can bring these elements into balance through its karma is selected. Karma or any therapeutic activity can  take place only when the substance possesses the ability to act in this way. This ability is dependent on the gunas (properties) of that dravya (substance) which shares inseparable relationship with the composition (related to panchamahabhutas) of dravya. Thus, the karma (action) is dependent on the composition of the dravya (drug). Thus karma as a concept is widely and importantly applied for the treatment of various diseases and maintaining health.

 

 

1.langhana (therapeutic Fasting)     2. Bhrimhana(Nourishing therapy)

The Therapeutic activity (karma) of a dravya depends on certain qualities of the dravya which are [[Rasa (रसः)|rasa]], [[Veeryam (वीर्यम्)|veerya]], [[Vipaka (विपाकः)|vipaka]] etc and the [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|panchamahabhuta]] predominance present in it. The dominant [[Panchamahabhutas (पञ्चमहाभूतानि)|mahabhuta]] in any substance is largely responsible for its gunas as well as therapeutic activity or karma.

3.Rukshana (Dryness causing)          4. Snehana(Emollient)

== Various types of therapeutic activities (karmas) described in Ayurveda ==

Even though there are various categories of therapeutic activity based on the site of action, overall effect and end result.  

5.swedana (Fomentation)                 6. Sthambana (Styptic therapy)

Mainly the therapeutic activity is classified into 6 types. These activities are known as karma of medicinal substances. <ref>Charaka Samhita (Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 22 Sutra 9)</ref> Specifically these 6 activities are also described as 6 upakramas (basic types of treatments). These are as follows,

=== langhana(therapeutic Fasting) ===

==== langhana (therapeutic Fasting) (लङ्घनम्) ====

यत् किञ्चिल्लाघवकरं देहे तल्लङ्घनं स्मृतम्||

यत् किञ्चिल्लाघवकरं देहे तल्लङ्घनं स्मृतम्||

Langhana karma means therapeutic fasting. That which induces lightness in the body is termed as langhana.

Langhana karma means therapeutic fasting. That which induces lightness in the body is termed as langhana.

=== Bhrimhana(Nourishing therapy) ===

==== Bhrimhana (Nourishing therapy) (बृहणम्) ====

बृहत्त्वं यच्छरीरस्य जनयेत्तच्च बृंहणम्|

बृहत्त्वं यच्छरीरस्य जनयेत्तच्च बृंहणम्|

That which causes nourishment to the body in qualitavtive and quantitative aspects is termed as Bhrimhana karma or nourishing therapy.

That which causes nourishment to the body in qualitavtive and quantitative aspects is termed as Bhrimhana karma or nourishing therapy.

=== Rukshana (Dryness causing) ===

==== Rukshana (Dryness causing) (रुक्षणम्) ====

रौक्ष्यं खरत्वं वैशद्यं यत् कुर्यात्तद्धि रूक्षणम्||

रौक्ष्यं खरत्वं वैशद्यं यत् कुर्यात्तद्धि रूक्षणम्||

The therapy which causes dryness, roughness in the body is termed as rukshana karma .  

The therapy which causes dryness, roughness in the body is termed as rukshana karma .  

=== Snehana(Emollient) ===

==== Snehana (Emolliating, hydrating) (स्नेहनम्) ====

         स्नेहनं स्नेहविष्यन्दमार्दवक्लेदकारकम् (char.sutr.22.10)

         स्नेहनं स्नेहविष्यन्दमार्दवक्लेदकारकम् (char.sutr.22.10)

Snehana is the therapy which provides snighdata(unctuousness) to the skin. Here snehana is done not just externally but internally as well. This procedure is done with the help of ghruta, taila etc.

Snehana is the therapy which provides snighdata(unctuousness) to the skin. Here snehana is done not just externally but internally as well. This procedure is done with the help of ghruta, taila etc.

=== swedana (Fomentation) ===

==== Swedana (Fomentation) (स्वेदनम्) ====

स्तम्भगौरवशीतघ्नं स्वेदनं स्वेदकारकम्||(char.sutr.22.11)

स्तम्भगौरवशीतघ्नं स्वेदनं स्वेदकारकम्||(char.sutr.22.11)

Swedana is a process or therapy by which sweat is produced in our body using various methods. This procedure reduces stiffness, heaviness of the body. The set of dravya which carry out this action are called svedopaga gana dravya.

Swedana is a process or therapy by which sweat is produced in our body using various methods. This procedure reduces stiffness, heaviness of the body. The set of dravya which carry out this action are called svedopaga gana dravya.

=== Sthambana (Styptic Therapy) ===

==== Sthambana (Styptic Therapy) (स्तंभनम्) ====

स्तम्भनं स्तम्भयति यद्गतिमन्तं चलं ध्रुवम्|

स्तम्भनं स्तम्भयति यद्गतिमन्तं चलं ध्रुवम्|

There is not a single heading under which karma can be categorised, but for the better understanding of the concept few ayurvedic scholars have classified it by an organ specific approach or systemic approach

There is not a single heading under which karma can be categorised, but for the better understanding of the concept few ayurvedic scholars have classified it by an organ specific approach or systemic approach

=== Nasya (Errhine therapy) ===

 

==== Nasya (Errhine therapy) (नस्यम्) ====

A therapeutic measure where the medicated oil etc is used to administer in the nostrils for elimination of certain dosha, in various disease aspects.<ref>Sushruta Samhita (Chikitsasthanam Adhyaya 40 Sutra 21)</ref>

A therapeutic measure where the medicated oil etc is used to administer in the nostrils for elimination of certain dosha, in various disease aspects.<ref>Sushruta Samhita (Chikitsasthanam Adhyaya 40 Sutra 21)</ref>

=== chakshushya (beneficial for eyes) ===

==== Vaman(emetic) (वमनम्) ====

The dravya which act by keeping the vision and overall health of eyes in a good state. There is set of specific  dravya(drugs) which are called chakshusya dravya mentioned in our classical treatises. One very basic example here is anjan (medicated collyrium) which is mentioned as chakshushya.  

 

The dravya which emits out the undigested food, dosha orally are termed as emetic dravya and the procedure is termed as vaman

 

==== Virechana (Purgative) (विरेचनम्) ====

            अधोभागं विरेचनसञ्ज्ञकम्; (char. kalp.1.4)

=== Keshya (promoting hair health) ===

The process in which elimination of undigested food and morbid dosha occurs through anal route is termed as virechana karma. And the dravya which are responsible for it are known as virechana dravya(drugs)

There are certain set of dravya known as keshya which act to keep hair healthy and promotes good lusture)

 

Following are the karma mentioned according to sharangdhar Samhita

=== Varnya (Promoting complexion) ===

==== Basti (बस्तिः) ====

Dravyas which act to promote healthy complexion and lusture are varnya dravya.

When the medicinal preparations are administered per anum, the procedure is called a basti karma. Since in the ancient times, these preparations were used to be filled in the bladder of animals (cleaned and prepared in a systematic manner) and then were pushed through the pipe attached to it, the procedure got popular as basti karma. However, in today's era, specially designed syringes, catheters and pouches are used to administer basti.

=== Deepan  ===

==== Raktamokshana (रक्तमोक्षणम्) ====

The dravya which act by kindling the jatharagni(digestive fire) are known as deepan dravya and that process by which it acts is termed as deepana karma. <ref name=":1">Sharangadhara Samhita (Purvakhanda Adhyaya 4)</ref>

Blood letting procedure in Ayurveda is called as Rakta (blood) mokshanam (to let). It is described in depth including its preliminary 4 types. It is included under panchakarmas and believed to be the best method to detoxify the impurities in the blood.  

=== Pachana (Digestive) ===

== Activities based on end effect ==

=== Vaman(emetic) ===

==== Chakshushya (beneficial for eyes) (चक्षुष्यम्) ====

              तत्र दोषहरणमूर्ध्वभागं वमनसञ्ज्ञकम्(char.kalpa 1.4)

The dravya which act by keeping the vision and overall health of eyes in a good state. There is set of specific  dravya(drugs) which are called chakshusya dravya mentioned in our classical treatises. One very basic example here is anjan (medicated collyrium) which is mentioned as chakshushya. It is also called as Netrya (नेत्र्यम्) activity.

The dravya which emits out the undigested food, dosha orally are termed as emetic dravya and the procedure is termed as vaman

There are certain set of dravya known as keshya which act to keep hair healthy and promotes good lusture)

=== Virechana (Purgative) ===

==== Varnya (Promoting complexion) (वर्ण्यम्) ====

            अधोभागं विरेचनसञ्ज्ञकम्; (char. kalp.1.4)

Dravyas which act to promote healthy complexion and lusture are varnya dravya.

The process in which elimination of undigested food and morbid dosha occurs through anal route is termed as virechana karma. And the dravya which are responsible for it are known as virechana dravya(drugs)

The dravya which act by kindling the jatharagni(digestive fire) are known as deepan dravya and that process by which it acts is termed as deepana karma. <ref name=":1">Sharangadhara Samhita (Purvakhanda Adhyaya 4)</ref>

Following are the karma mentioned according to sharangdhar Samhita

Pachana means digestive process. The dravya which digests the ama(..) are known as pachana dravya and the process is termed as pachana karma. <ref name=":1" />

=== Anuloman ===

==== Anuloman (अनुलोमनम्) ====

The dravya which removes the morbid dosha through anal route, relieves constipation are known as anulonama dravyas and the process or the karma is termed as anuloman karma. <ref name=":1" />

The dravya which removes the morbid dosha through anal route, relieves constipation are known as anulonama dravyas and the process or the karma is termed as anuloman karma. <ref name=":1" />

=== Sramsana ===

==== Sramsana (स्रंसनम्) ====

The dravya which eliminates the digested or undigested food and the adhered doshas through the anal route are sramsana dravyas, and the karma is termed as sramsana karma.<ref name=":1" />

The dravya which eliminates the digested or undigested food and the adhered doshas through the anal route are sramsana dravyas, and the karma is termed as sramsana karma.<ref name=":1" />

=== Bhedana ===

==== Bhedana (भेदनम्) ====

The dravyas which causes the breakdown of grathit(hardened) mala and removes it through anal route are bhedana dravyas and the process or karma is termed as bhedana karma.<ref name=":1" />

The dravyas which causes the breakdown of grathit(hardened) mala and removes it through anal route are bhedana dravyas and the process or karma is termed as bhedana karma.<ref name=":1" />

=== Chhedana ===

==== Chhedana (छेदनम्) ====

The dravya which detangles the morbid doshas within themselves are chhedana dravya and that particular action is termed as chedana karma.<ref name=":1" />

The dravya which detangles the morbid doshas within themselves are chhedana dravya and that particular action is termed as chedana karma.<ref name=":1" />

=== Lekhana ===

==== Lekhana (लेखनम्) ====

The dravya which causes shoshana(drying up) of dosha and dhatus are lekhana dravya and the action is termed as lekhana karma.<ref name=":1" />

The dravya which causes shoshana(drying up) of dosha and dhatus are lekhana dravya and the action is termed as lekhana karma.<ref name=":1" />

=== Shastra Karmas ===

=== Shastra Karmas (Activities involved in Surgical procedures) (शस्त्रकर्माणि) ===

Shastras are sharp instruments which are used in various surgical procedures.<blockquote>उत्पाट्यपाट्यसीव्यैष्यलेख्यप्रच्छानकुट्टनम्

Shastras are sharp instruments which are used in various surgical procedures.<blockquote>उत्पाट्यपाट्यसीव्यैष्यलेख्यप्रच्छानकुट्टनम्

छेद्यं भेद्यं व्यधो मन्थो ग्रहो दाहश्च तत्क्रियाः|| (Asht. Hrud. 26.28)<ref>Ashtanga Hrudayam (Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 26 Sutra 28)</ref></blockquote>

छेद्यं भेद्यं व्यधो मन्थो ग्रहो दाहश्च तत्क्रियाः|| (Asht. Hrud. 26.28)<ref>Ashtanga Hrudayam (Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 26 Sutra 28)</ref></blockquote>

==== Utpatana (to extract) ====

==== Utpatana (to extract) (उत्पाटनम्) ====

Removal of foreign body or extraction procedure is known as utpatana karma

Removal of foreign body or extraction procedure is known as utpatana karma

==== Patana (to tear) ====

==== Patana (to tear) (पाटनम्) ====

The karma which involves cutting or tearing with the help of appropriate shastra is termed as patina.

The karma which involves cutting or tearing with the help of appropriate shastra is termed as patina.

==== Seevana (suturing) ====

==== Seevana (suturing) (सीवनम्) ====

The process of suturing or sealing of a for example wound is termed as seevana karma.<ref>Sushruta Samhita (Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 25 Sutra 16)</ref>

The process of suturing or sealing of a for example wound is termed as seevana karma.<ref>Sushruta Samhita (Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 25 Sutra 16)</ref>

==== Eshana (probing) ====

==== Eshana (probing) (एषणम्) ====

The process of penetrating or probing with the help of a sharp instrument or shastra is termed as eshana karma. (for example, in sinuses, wounds etc)<ref>Sushruta Samhita (Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 25 Sutra 10)</ref>

The process of penetrating or probing with the help of a sharp instrument or shastra is termed as eshana karma. (for example, in sinuses, wounds etc)<ref>Sushruta Samhita (Sutrasthanam Adhyaya 25 Sutra 10)</ref>

==== Lekhana in surgery (to scrape) ====

==== Lekhana in surgery (to scrape) (लेखनम्) ====

The process which involves scraping  

The process which involves scraping  

==== Prachhan ====

==== Prachhan (प्रच्छानम्) ====

Scratching, incising, minute puncturing

Scratching, incising, minute puncturing

==== Kuttana ====

==== Kuttana (कुट्टनम्) ====

beating, hitting, pounding

beating, hitting, pounding

==== Chedana ====

==== Chedana (छेदनम्) ====

excising, cutting,

excising, cutting,

==== Bhedana ====

==== Bhedana (भेदनम्) ====

breaking,

breaking,

==== Vyadhana ====

==== Vyadhana (व्यधनम्) ====

Puncturing,

Puncturing,

==== Manthana ====

==== Manthana (मंथनम्) ====

Churning,

Churning,

==== Grahana ====

==== Grahana (ग्रहणम्) ====

holding, grasping and

holding, grasping and

==== Dahana ====

==== Dahana (दहनम्) ====

burning, cauterizing  are the functions of sharp instruments.

burning, cauterizing  are the functions of sharp instruments.