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== शब्दलक्षणानि ॥ Shabda Lakshanas ==

== शब्दलक्षणानि ॥ Shabda Lakshanas ==

The Darshana texts stand testimony to the fact that ancient Bharat was the fertile breeding ground for intellectual discussions about many unique and fundamental concepts of the material world such as physics, chemistry, mathematics and astronomy to quote a few. It is with awe that one may note that the characteristics of sound as explained in the Darshana shastras is the outstanding outcome of "''modern''" discussions in the past using logical recognizable forms of thinking and tackling questions that is unparalleled even in this modern day.  

The Darshana texts stand testimony to the fact that ancient Bharat was the fertile breeding ground for intellectual discussions about many unique and fundamental concepts of the material world such as physics, chemistry, mathematics and astronomy to quote a few. It is with awe that one may note that the characteristics of sound as explained in the Darshana shastras is the outstanding outcome of "''modern''" discussions in the past using logical recognizable forms of thinking and tackling questions that is unparalleled even in this modern day. Here we see each text giving one kind of lakshana vakya to define shabda.  

'''Vaiseshika Sutras''' say that the Sound is that object of which the organ of apprehension is the ear.<ref name=":3">Sinha, Nandalal (1923 Second Edition) ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada with the commentary of Sankara Misra''. Allahabad: The Panini Office (Page 86-91)</ref> <blockquote>श्रोत्रग्रहणो योर्ऽथः स शब्दः । वैशेषिक-२,२.२१ । (Vais. Sutr. 2.2.21)<ref name=":4">Vaiseshika Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>'''Tarksamgraha''', by Annambhatta declares

'''Vaiseshika Sutras''' say that the Sound is that object of which the organ of apprehension is the ear.<ref name=":3">Sinha, Nandalal (1923 Second Edition) ''The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada with the commentary of Sankara Misra''. Allahabad: The Panini Office (Page 86-91)</ref> <blockquote>श्रोत्रग्रहणो योर्ऽथः स शब्दः । वैशेषिक-२,२.२१ । (Vais. Sutr. 2.2.21)<ref name=":4">Vaiseshika Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>'''Nyaya Sutras and Tarksamgraha''', declare  <blockquote>आप्तोपदेशः शब्दः ।। ७ ।। āptopadeśaḥ śabdaḥ {शब्दलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.7)<ref name=":42">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 1])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>आप्तवाक्यं शब्दः। आप्तस्तु, यथार्थवक्ता। (Tark. Samg. 4.1)<ref>Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Shabdanirupanam])</ref></blockquote>Here Shabda refers to valid verbal testimony (shabda pramana), a proposition set forth by a trustworthy person (apta). One who habitually speaks only truth is a trustworthy person (apta). Shabda is a sentence or a proposition discussed as a pramana where verbal cognition happens through the knowledge of words, a stance taken by Naiyayikas.

'''Mahabhashya''' of Patanjali, expounds the vaiyakarana view and addresses the definition of "what is Shabda?"<blockquote>अथ गौरित्यत्र कः शब्दः ? ...... कस्तर्हि शब्दः? येनोच्चारितेन सास्नालाङ्गूलककुदखुरविषाणिनां सम्प्रत्ययो भवति स शब्दः ।। अथ वा प्रतीतपदार्थको लोके ध्वनिः शब्द इत्युच्यते।<ref name=":2">Mahabhashyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Paspashahnika])</ref></blockquote>Summary: Now, when one says गौः (cow), what is Shabda?... Shabda is that on whose manifestation the correct knowledge of the object (Cow) which has dew-lap (सास्ना), tail (लाङ्गूल), hump (ककुद), hoof (खुर), horns (विषाण) etc, is produced; or, the '''sound which has a decisive meaning is said to be shabda''' in the world.  

 

'''Mahabhashya''' of Patanjali, expounds the vaiyakarana view and addresses the definition of "what is Shabda?"<blockquote>अथ गौरित्यत्र कः शब्दः ? ...... कस्तर्हि शब्दः? येनोच्चारितेन सास्नालाङ्गूलककुदखुरविषाणिनां सम्प्रत्ययो भवति स शब्दः ।। अथ वा प्रतीतपदार्थको लोके ध्वनिः शब्द इत्युच्यते।<ref name=":2">Mahabhashyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Pashpashahnika])</ref></blockquote>Summary: Now, when one says गौः (cow), what is Shabda?... Shabda is that on whose manifestation the correct knowledge of the object (Cow) which has dew-lap (सास्ना), tail (लाङ्गूल), hump (ककुद), hoof (खुर), horns (विषाण) etc, is produced; or, the '''sound which has a decisive meaning is said to be shabda''' in the world.  

When a word like गौः is pronounced, the following concepts appear in the mind of the hearer :—the species cow, her action, her qualities, genus cow, the shape of the cow—and also the word made up of ga, au and visarga strikes his ear. The hearer begins to doubt whether on pronouncing गौः the Shabda refers to the species cow, her actions etc. According to Vaiyakaranas the relation (sambandha) of शब्दः (word) and अर्थः (its meaning), गुणम् (attribute) and गुणिन् (object having the attribute), क्रिया (action) and क्रियावान् (performer of action) is identity (samavaya sambandha). However none of these are the connotation of shabda and true connotation, according to Vaiyakaranas, is Sphota, which, when manifested, enables the hearer to have a clear knowledge of the object cow. They admit that every letter that is pronounced makes an impression in the mind and the sum total of the impressions made by all the letters of the word suggest the sense. Hence Shabda is not what we hear, but it is that, Sphota or sound-essence, which is manifested in the mind after the whole word is pronounced.<ref name=":1" />

When a word like गौः is pronounced, the following concepts appear in the mind of the hearer :—the species cow, her action, her qualities, genus cow, the shape of the cow—and also the word made up of ga, au and visarga strikes his ear. The hearer begins to doubt whether on pronouncing गौः the Shabda refers to the species cow, her actions etc. According to Vaiyakaranas the relation (sambandha) of शब्दः (word) and अर्थः (its meaning), गुणम् (attribute) and गुणिन् (object having the attribute), क्रिया (action) and क्रियावान् (performer of action) is identity (samavaya sambandha). However none of these are the connotation of shabda and true connotation, according to Vaiyakaranas, is Sphota, which, when manifested, enables the hearer to have a clear knowledge of the object cow. They admit that every letter that is pronounced makes an impression in the mind and the sum total of the impressions made by all the letters of the word suggest the sense. Hence Shabda is not what we hear, but it is that, Sphota or sound-essence, which is manifested in the mind after the whole word is pronounced.<ref name=":1" />

=== Vaidika (वैदिकाः) and Laukika (लौकिकाः) ===

=== Vaidika (वैदिकाः) and Laukika (लौकिकाः) ===

Mahabhashyam the celebrated text of vyakarana, given to the world by Maharshi Patanjali, gives an in depth analysis about the development of language and the siddhantas to be considered from the vyakarana standpoint. It describes about which shabdas should be studied (and understood) and classifies them as Vaidika and Laukika. Maharshi Patanjali says,<blockquote>केषां शब्दानाम्?</blockquote><blockquote>लौकिकानां वैदिकानां च। तत्र लौकिकास्तावत् - गोरश्वः पुरुषो हस्ती शकुनिः मृगो ब्राह्मण इति। वैदिकाः खल्वपि- शन्नो देवीरभिष्टये (अ.सं.1,1,1), इषे त्वोर्जे त्वा (तै.सं.1,1,1,1), अग्निमीले पुरोहितम् (ऋ.1,1,1), अग्न आयाहि वीतये (सा. सं. 1,1,1) इति ।। (Maha. Pashpashahnika)<ref name=":2" /></blockquote><nowiki>Summary : Of which shabdas? Of those current in the world and in the Vedas.  Among them the Laukika shabdas are गौः (cow), अश्वः (horse), पुरुषः (person), हस्ती (elephant), शकुनिः (bird), मृगः (deer), ब्राह्मणः (brahmana) etc. The Vaidika shabdas are शन्नो देवीरभिष्टये [Let the waters bring us happiness (so that we may perform sacrifice); इषे त्वोर्जे त्वा [(I cut) you for food and vitality]; अग्निमीले पुरोहितम् (I invoke Agni, the divine priest).</nowiki><ref name=":1" />

Mahabhashyam the celebrated text of vyakarana, given to the world by Maharshi Patanjali, gives an in depth analysis about the development of language and the siddhantas to be considered from the vyakarana standpoint. It describes about which shabdas should be studied (and understood) and classifies them as Vaidika and Laukika. Maharshi Patanjali says,<blockquote>केषां शब्दानाम्?</blockquote><blockquote>लौकिकानां वैदिकानां च। तत्र लौकिकास्तावत् - गोरश्वः पुरुषो हस्ती शकुनिः मृगो ब्राह्मण इति। वैदिकाः खल्वपि- शन्नो देवीरभिष्टये (अ.सं.1,1,1), इषे त्वोर्जे त्वा (तै.सं.1,1,1,1), अग्निमीले पुरोहितम् (ऋ.1,1,1), अग्न आयाहि वीतये (सा. सं. 1,1,1) इति ।। (Maha. Paspashahnika)<ref name=":2" /></blockquote><nowiki>Summary : Of which shabdas? Of those current in the world and in the Vedas.  Among them the Laukika shabdas are गौः (cow), अश्वः (horse), पुरुषः (person), हस्ती (elephant), शकुनिः (bird), मृगः (deer), ब्राह्मणः (brahmana) etc. The Vaidika shabdas are शन्नो देवीरभिष्टये [Let the waters bring us happiness (so that we may perform sacrifice)]; इषे त्वोर्जे त्वा [(I cut) you for food and vitality]; अग्निमीले पुरोहितम् (I invoke Agni, the divine priest).</nowiki><ref name=":1" />

The Vaidika shabdas are considered to be more prominent than the laukika shabdas, since the latter should not be mispronounced only in Yajnas and the former on no occasion.  

The Vaidika shabdas are considered to be more prominent than the laukika shabdas, since the latter should not be mispronounced only in Yajnas and the former on no occasion.  

=== Samyogaja (संयोगजः) Vibhagaja (विभागजः) Shabdaja (शब्दजः) ===

=== Samyogaja (संयोगजः) Vibhagaja (विभागजः) Shabdaja (शब्दजः) ===

Based on the source of sound it has been classified by Vaisheshikas as

Based on the source of sound it has been classified by Vaisheshikas as<blockquote>संयोगाद्विभगाच्च शब्दाच्च शब्दनिष्पत्तिः। (Vais. Sutr. 2.2.31)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Sound is produced from conjunction (संयोगात्) disjunction (विभागात्) and from sound (शब्दात्) also.

 

संयोगाद्विभगाच्च शब्दाच्च शब्दनिष्पत्तिः। (Vais. Sutr. 2.2.31)<ref name=":4" />

=== Drshtartha (दृष्टार्थः) and Adrshtartha (अदृष्टार्थः) ===

According to Gautama, <blockquote>स द्विविधो दृष्टादृष्टार्थत्वात् ।। ८ ।। {शब्दभेदः} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.8)<ref name=":42" /></blockquote>Shabda is of two kinds- the Ḍṛiṣtāṛṭha, that of which the thing spoken of is perceived (matter that is seen), and the Aḍṛiṣtāṛṭha, that of which the thing is not perceived (matter which is not seen).”<ref>Mm. Satisa Chandra Vidyabhusana (1913) ''The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama.'' Allahabad: The Panini Office. (Page 4)</ref>

Sound is produced from conjunction (संयोगात्) disjunction (विभागात्) and from sound (शब्दात्) also.

The first kind involves matter which can be actually verified. Though we are incapable of verifying the matter which cannot be seen as in the second kind, one can somehow ascertain it by means of anumana or inference

From conjunction, i.e., from conjunction of the drum and the stick, from disjunction, i.e., when a bamboo stick is being split up and where Sound is produced in a distant flute and such other instruments, Sound is produced. Such sound reaches the portion of the ether present in the ear hollow and thereby gets heard.<ref name=":3" />

Matter which is seen e.g., a physician's assertion that physical strength is gained by taking butter.

 

Matter which is not seen/perceived e.g., a seer's assertion that one reaches svargaloka by performing asvamedha yajna.

=== Understanding a few Terms ===

=== Understanding a few Terms ===

The terms such as dhvani, vak, shabda, vakya etc, are used interchangeably in  many instances in literature. Since the subject is vast addressing many issues may be beyond the scope of the present work, however few simplifications are given for easier understanding.<ref>Shabda vak etayoH vicharaH ([https://groups.google.com/forum/#!searchin/bvparishat/sabda%7Csort:date/bvparishat/ZFA4PpULUuE/vzo0iZtPBQAJ Post in BVP] by various scholars)</ref>

The terms such as dhvani, vak, shabda, vakya etc, are used interchangeably in  many instances in literature. As such there is not single absolute definition of Shabda but is explained contextually by different scholars. Since the subject is vast addressing many issues may be beyond the scope of the present work, however few simplifications are given for easier understanding.<ref>Shabda vak etayoH vicharaH ([https://groups.google.com/forum/#!searchin/bvparishat/sabda%7Csort:date/bvparishat/ZFA4PpULUuE/vzo0iZtPBQAJ Post in BVP] by various scholars)</ref>

Sound includes any '''Dhvani (ध्वनिः)''' that is audible and if meaningful, it is called '''Speech (vak)'''. Inarticulate sounds such as the bird cries classified by Naiyayikas as Dhvani (as mentioned above) are also a language according to Yoganushasanam (योगानुशासनम् 3.17) which are to be explored by understanding the devices offered therein. It is not unheard of that animals express themselves in a language that is not understood by common man.

'''Shabda (शब्दः श्रोतृविषयः।)''' is something that is heard. Sound includes any '''Dhvani (ध्वनिः)''' that is audible and if meaningful, it is called '''Speech (vak)'''. Inarticulate sounds such as the bird cries classified by Naiyayikas as Dhvani (as mentioned above) are also a language according to Yoganushasanam (योगानुशासनम् 3.17) which are to be explored by understanding the devices offered therein. It is not unheard of that animals express themselves in a language that is not understood by common man.

'''Voice is the the guna (गुणः)''' of sound although sometimes the term is used to denote sound itself such as low voice - loud voice etc. The degree of  intensity (गांभीर्यम्) of sound may be expressed as - deep voice / raised voice etc. Gandharvaveda (गान्धर्ववेदः) a musical treatise also describes Shruti (श्रुति) as the pitch classified as high or low.  

'''Voice is the the guna (गुणः)''' of sound although sometimes the term is used to denote sound itself such as low voice - loud voice etc. The degree of  intensity (गांभीर्यम्) of sound may be expressed as - deep voice / raised voice etc. Gandharvaveda (गान्धर्ववेदः) a musical treatise also describes Shruti (श्रुति) as the pitch classified as high or low.  

* Relationship the Shabda (शब्दः) has with its Indriya (श्रोतेन्द्रियं)

* Relationship the Shabda (शब्दः) has with its Indriya (श्रोतेन्द्रियं)

* Relationship of the Shabda with its meaning

* Relationship of the Shabda with its meaning

One perceives sound by the sense-organ of ear, which is कर्णविवरवृत्त्याकाशं श्रोतेन्द्रियं भवति । the space or ether enclosed in the ears (the auditory canal). There due to the proximity (सन्निकर्षः), and by identifying itself with the ether of Sravana indriya (by समवायसम्बन्धः) sound is recognized by the ear. Now, how is a sound generated at a distance by conjunction of two bodies such as the hand and drum (भेरीदण्डसंयोगेन) or the letters produced by the hitting of wind in the vocal organs such as Taalu, Kantha (ताल्वादिस्थानाघातेन मुखे जातो वा शब्दः) have any relationship with the ear?  

One perceives sound by the sense-organ of ear, which is कर्णविवरवृत्त्याकाशं श्रोतेन्द्रियं भवति । the space or ether enclosed in the ears (the auditory canal). There due to the proximity (सन्निकर्षः), and by identifying itself with the ether of Sravana indriya (by समवायसम्बन्धः) sound is recognized by the ear. Now, how is a sound generated at a distance by conjunction of two bodies such as the hand and drum (भेरीदण्डसंयोगेन) or the letters produced by the hitting of wind in the vocal organs such as Taalu, Kantha (ताल्वादिस्थानाघातेन मुखे जातो वा शब्दः) have any relationship with the ear? More information on this subject is given in [[Origin and Propagation of Sound (शब्दोत्पत्तिः प्रसारश्च)|origin and propagation of sound (शब्दोत्पत्तिः प्रसारश्च)]].

=== Substratum of Sound ===

=== Substratum of Sound ===

Sound has not for its substratum any of the tangible substances, namely, earth, water, fire and air. Its substratum is ether which pervades all space. hence sound is produced even in a vacuum which is devoid of smell, taste, color and touch - the qualities of tangible substances. The reason why the sound produced in vacuum does not reach our ears, is that there is no air to carry it.

Sound has not for its substratum any of the tangible substances, namely, earth, water, fire and air. Its substratum is ether which pervades all space. hence sound is produced even in a vacuum which is devoid of smell, taste, color and touch - the qualities of tangible substances. The reason why the sound produced in vacuum does not reach our ears, is that there is no air to carry it.

=== Nitya (Eternal) or Karya (Non-eternal) Nature ===

=== Nitya (Eternal) or Karya (Non-eternal) Nature ===

Some say that sound being a quality of Akasha is all-pervading, eternal and capable of being manifested. Another school of thought believes that like smell, sound is quality or attribute of the substance in which it abides and is capable of being manifested, hence not eternal. Again, agreeing that sound is a quality of Akasha, another school says that it is subject to production and destruction like knowledge; thus it is anitya.   

Some say that sound being a quality of Akasha is all-pervading, eternal and capable of being manifested. Another school of thought believes that like smell, sound is quality or attribute of the substance in which it abides and is capable of being manifested, hence not eternal. Again, agreeing that sound is a quality of Akasha, another school says that it is subject to production and destruction like knowledge; thus it is anitya.   

Schools of thought subscribing to Nitya and Anitya nature of Shabda include   

The question whether the word is eternal or has a point of origin has given rise to divergent views as seen in the darshana shastras. Schools of thought subscribing to Nitya and Anitya nature of Shabda include   

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

!शब्दः नित्यः (Nityatva)

!शब्दः नित्यः (Nityatva)

|Sankhya (SPS 5.58-60)  

|Sankhya (SPS 5.58-60)  

|}

|}

==== Mimasa ====

==== '''कार्यशब्दवादः''' ॥ Karyashabdavada ====

This is an important concept for Mimamsa explains the Apaurusheyatva of Vedas based on the Nityatva of Shabdas. Mimamsaka holds Shabda to be nitya, not because of a lack of understanding of its nature, but because for him Shabda is something beyond "sound" as normally understood, or Shabda as understood by a Naiyayika.  

According to Nyaya siddhantas there are six objections to disprove the eternality of sound.

!Explanation of Nyaya Sutras<ref>Mm. Satisa Chandra Vidyabhusana (1913) ''The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama.'' Allahabad: The Panini Office. (Page 47)</ref>

|Sound has a cause and that which has a cause is not eternal because it did not exist before the cause (such as physical vibration) and it ceases to exist after the cause has subsided.

|Because sound is apprehended through a sense organ, even in a distant place far away from the source of sound, it is not eternal.

|Sound is conceived and spoken of as a product.  

लिङ्गाच्चानित्यः शब्दः । वैशेषिक-२,२.३२ ।

 

In order to understand the meaning of shabda one has to know the relationship between shabda and artha (meaning). According to Jaimini, word is eternal and is manifested when it is uttered in close succession. The letters are eternal and indestructible; neither produced nor destroyed. Bharthrhari is also of the view that word, meaning, and its relationship is nitya. Maharshis, so also the sutrakaras and other philosophers have also supported nityata of shabdas. <blockquote>नित्याः शब्दार्थसंबन्धास्तत्राम्नाता महर्षिभिः । सूत्राणां सानुतन्त्राणां भाष्याणां च प्रणेतृभिः ॥ १.२३ ॥ (Vakya. Brahm. 1.23)</blockquote><blockquote>नित्यत्वे कृतकत्वे वा तेषां आदिर्न विद्यते । प्राणिनां इव सा चैषा व्यवस्थानित्यतोच्यते ॥ १.२८ ॥ (Vakya. Brahm. 1.28)<ref>Vakyapadiyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83 Brahmakanda])</ref></blockquote>The following table summarizes the objections of Naiyayikas to the argument sound is nitya; along with the explanatory answers given by Mimamsakas to prove that it is nitya.

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|सतः परमदर्शनं विषयानागमात् -१,१.१३

== Shabda Brahma ==

== Shabda Brahma ==