Changes

# Wool

# Wool

# Silk  

# Silk  

# Cotton.

# Cotton  

This survey excludes bark cloth and also, felt or namda (नांदा), which is non-woven and therefore, may be classified as a fabric rather than a textile.<ref name=":0" />

This survey excludes bark cloth and also, felt or namda (नांदा), which is non-woven and therefore, may be classified as a fabric rather than a textile.<ref name=":0" />

==== Flax Fibres ====

==== Flax Fibres ====

Linen, referred to as Kshauma in early texts, is obtained from the plant Linum usimtissirnum. The plant is called Uma (उमा) in the Charaka Samhita while Panini uses the term Kshuma and atasi. Uma and Kshuma had the connotation of linen while atasi had that of linseed oil. Linum usitatissimum was not indigenous to India and in antiquity it was cultivated in Egypt, Europe and Northern India. The attempt to popularise that plant for its flax fibre failed in this country, but as a source of linseed oil it was extensively cultivated.  

Linen, referred to as Kshauma in early texts, is obtained from the plant Linum usimtissimum. The plant is called Uma (उमा) in the Charaka Samhita while Panini uses the term Kshuma and atasi. Uma and Kshuma had the connotation of linen while atasi had that of linseed oil. Linum usitatissimum was not indigenous to India and in antiquity it was cultivated in Egypt, Europe and Northern India. The attempt to popularise that plant for its flax fibre failed in this country, but as a source of linseed oil it was extensively cultivated.  

Flax fibres are long, lustrous, strong, and can stand up to high tension. They are smooth, hard faced, inelastic and resistant to abrasion. They are also good heat conductors and readily absorb water.

Flax fibres are long, lustrous, strong, and can stand up to high tension. They are smooth, hard faced, inelastic and resistant to abrasion. They are also good heat conductors and readily absorb water.

<blockquote>यज्ञस्य वै सृष्टस्योल्बमन्वलंबत तद्वासः क्षौमं अभवत्, तस्मात् क्षौमेण दीक्षयन्ति यज्ञस्य सयोनित्वाय...<ref>Maitrayani Samhita, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AC Prapathaka 6].</ref> </blockquote><blockquote>''yajñasya vai sr̥ṣṭasyōlbamanvalaṁbata tadvāsaḥ kṣaumaṁ abhavat, tasmāt kṣaumēṇa dīkṣayanti yajñasya sayōnitvāya...''</blockquote>

<blockquote>यज्ञस्य वै सृष्टस्योल्बमन्वलंबत तद्वासः क्षौमं अभवत्, तस्मात् क्षौमेण दीक्षयन्ति यज्ञस्य सयोनित्वाय...<ref>Maitrayani Samhita, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AC Prapathaka 6].</ref> </blockquote><blockquote>''yajñasya vai sr̥ṣṭasyōlbamanvalaṁbata tadvāsaḥ kṣaumaṁ abhavat, tasmāt kṣaumēṇa dīkṣayanti yajñasya sayōnitvāya...''</blockquote>

* The Taittiriya samhita (6.1.1-3).

* The Taittiriya samhita (6.1.1-3).

<blockquote>अन्तरत एव मेध्यो भवति वाससा दीक्षयति सौम्यं वै क्षौमं देवतया सोमम् एष देवताम् उपैति यो दीक्षते सोमस्य तनूर् असि तनुवम् मे पाहीत्य् आह स्वाम् एव देवताम् उपैति ।<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 6, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AC/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Prapathaka 1].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''antarata ēva mēdhyō bhavati vāsasā dīkṣayati saumyaṁ vai kṣaumaṁ dēvatayā sōmam ēṣa dēvatām upaiti yō dīkṣatē sōmasya tanūr asi tanuvam mē pāhīty āha svām ēva dēvatām upaiti ।''</blockquote>Domestic production could not have been sufficient at all times to meet the demand and supplies that must have been drawn from other sectors. Circa B.C. 600, the Phoenicians were distributing Egyptian linen in the Mediterranean region. Since there is indication of the Phoenician network penetrating into Babylonia it would not unreasonable to surmise that Egyptian linen was vended in India through a distribution system linking Western India to Babylonia through the Persian seaways. When the Roman market impinged on the Erythraean Sea, Egyptian linen was exported to India through intermediaries in Roman trade in payment for spices(6).  

<blockquote>अन्तरत एव मेध्यो भवति वाससा दीक्षयति सौम्यं वै क्षौमं देवतया सोमम् एष देवताम् उपैति यो दीक्षते सोमस्य तनूर् असि तनुवम् मे पाहीत्य् आह स्वाम् एव देवताम् उपैति ।<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 6, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AC/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Prapathaka 1].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''antarata ēva mēdhyō bhavati vāsasā dīkṣayati saumyaṁ vai kṣaumaṁ dēvatayā sōmam ēṣa dēvatām upaiti yō dīkṣatē sōmasya tanūr asi tanuvam mē pāhīty āha svām ēva dēvatām upaiti ।''</blockquote>Domestic production could not have been sufficient at all times to meet the demand and supplies that must have been drawn from other sectors. Circa B.C. 600, the Phoenicians were distributing Egyptian linen in the Mediterranean region. Since there is indication of the Phoenician network penetrating into Babylonia it would not unreasonable to surmise that Egyptian linen was vended in India through a distribution system linking Western India to Babylonia through the Persian seaways. When the Roman market impinged on the Erythraean Sea, Egyptian linen was exported to India through intermediaries in Roman trade in payment for spices. However, by the 12th century, flax as an agricultural crop in Egypt declined.  

(6) Mesopotamia had developed its expertise in wool, Egypt had traditionally been the centre for linen weaving. The decline of flax as an agricultural crop in Egypt is traced to the 12th century.

It is to be noted that predominant demand appears to have been for fine quality linen and in the Amarakosha, Kshauma is regarded as synonymous with dukula. In course of time, it was identified with the silk and between the 12th and 16th centuries A.D. its original meaning began to be forgotten.

 

The predominant demand appears to have been for fine quality linen and in the Amarakosha, Kshauma is regarded as synonymous with dukula. In course of time, it was identified with the silk and between the 12th and 16th centuries A.D. its original meaning began to be forgotten.

==== Hemp Fibres ====

==== Hemp Fibres ====

Hemp receives mention in the Shatapatha Brahmana. It mentions hemp as shana.  

Hemp receives mention in the Shatapatha Brahmana as 'shana'. This fibre, which is inelastic and crushes easily, is derived for purposes of weaving from the bark of

 

* Cannabis sativa : The oldest hempen fragment from Cannabis sativa, dated to circa B.C. 800, has been found at Gordion in Asia Minor. Though Cannabis sativa, characterised as true hemp, is indigenous to all parts of India, as a source of fibre, it has been utilised only in Nepal.  

The fibre, which is inelastic and crushes easily, is derived for purposes of weaving from the bark of Cannabis sativa, Crotalaria juncea and Hibiscus cannabinus. The oldest hempen fragment from Cannabis sativa, dated to circa B.C. 800, has been found at Gordion in Asia Minor. In India, however, Cannabis sativa, characterised as true hemp, has been cultivated predominantly for the narcotic extract obtained from its leaves and flowers. Known as bhanga, vijaya in Sanskrit, ganja in Hindi, Bengali and Persian, it is indigenous to all parts of India. As a source of fibre, it has been utilised only in Nepal. The most popular source for hemp in India has been the bark of Crotalaria juncea called in Sanskrit as shana and in Bengali as son. It is an annual plant cultivated in all parts of South Asia. The fibre in Bengal is whiter than that of Maharashtra because of the more rigorous processes of cleaning adopted. The history of shana pre-dates that of jute in India. The term gunny, carrying the connotation of jute in modern times, was derived from the term goni, a coarse cloth originally made from shana.

* Crotalaria juncea : The most popular source for hemp in India has been the bark of Crotalaria juncea (Konkani hemp) called in Sanskrit as shana and in Bengali as son. It is an annual plant cultivated in all parts of South Asia. The fibre in Bengal is whiter than that of Maharashtra because of the more rigorous processes of cleaning adopted. The history of shana pre-dates that of jute in India. The term gunny, carrying the connotation of jute in modern times, was derived from the term goni, a coarse cloth originally made from shana.  

 

* Hibiscus cannabinus : In the case of Hibiscus cannaibinus called as mesta pat in Bengal, ambaree or ambadi in Maharashtra and Palungoo in Madras, the bark has been utilised for its fibre, while the leaves have served as a comestible. An alternative term adopted in Bombay for ambaree was Deccani hemp to distinguish it from Crotalaria juncea or Konkani hemp. In the hilly areas of the region known earlier as the Circars in present day Andhra Pradesh, this plant was called Hibiscus collinus, the vernacular term being kanda gang (8). It is called Hibiscus eriocarpus in present times.  

In the case of Hibiscus cannaibinus called as mesta pat in Bengal, ambaree or ambadi in Maharashtra and Palungoo in Madras, the bark has been utilised for its fibre, while the leaves have served as a comestible. An alternative term adopted in Bombay for ambaree was Deccani hemp to distinguish it from Crotalaria juncea or Konkani hemp. In the hilly areas of the region known earlier as the Circars in present day Andhra Pradesh, this plant was called Hibiscus collinus, the vernacular term being kanda gang (8). It is called Hibiscus eriocarpus in present times. In central India, Verrier Elwin records that the Bondas, Gadabas and Parengas spin fibre from the bark of Calotropis gigantea. This is arka in Sanskrit, ak in Hindi and akado in Gujarati. This is mixed with cotton and woven on simple looms. Both fibres can be dyed. This cloth is called Keranga cloth (9).  

In central India, Verrier Elwin records that the Bondas, Gadabas and Parengas spin fibre from the bark of Calotropis gigantea. This is arka in Sanskrit, ak in Hindi and akado in Gujarati. This is mixed with cotton and woven on simple looms. Both fibres can be dyed. This cloth is called Keranga cloth (9).  

(8) It is of interest that in Bengal and Orissa, there is living memory of a cheaper variant of the silken ritual garment, called patta vastra. These are said to have been woven of a mixture of silk and hemp or of hemp alone. In Maharashtra a similar garment exists, referred to as mugata. In present times, with the help of modern technology, rayon patta vastra are being fashioned.

It is of interest that in Bengal and Orissa, there is living memory of a cheaper variant of the silken ritual garment, called patta vastra. These are said to have been woven of a mixture of silk and hemp or of hemp alone. In Maharashtra a similar garment exists, referred to as mugata. In present times, with the help of modern technology, rayon patta vastra are being fashioned.

(9) The Bonds and the Gadaba are associated with the Korapat District and the Dudma Falls respectively in Orissa. Samples of Keranga cloth are displayed in the Department of Anthropology, Utkal University, Bhubaneshwar. The loom is a simple frame loom.

(9) The Bonds and the Gadaba are associated with the Korapat District and the Dudma Falls respectively in Orissa. Samples of Keranga cloth are displayed in the Department of Anthropology, Utkal University, Bhubaneshwar. The loom is a simple frame loom.