Changes

== परिचयः॥ Introduction ==

== परिचयः॥ Introduction ==

Ancient rulers of India attached great importance to the construction and maintenance of forts and fortresses, for they served as the main base to defend the country against invasions of the enemy. Bhishma describes the qualities of such a place of residence of a raja to Yudhishtira,<ref name=":3">Pt. Ramnarayandatt Shastri. ''Mahabharata of Veda Vyasa, Shanti Parva Volume 5 Hindi Translation.''  Gorakhpur: Gita Press (Pages 4647-4648)</ref><blockquote>यत्पुरं दुर्गसम्पन्नं धान्यायुधसमन्वितम्। दृढप्राकारपरिखं हस्त्यश्वरथसङ्कुलम्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.6)</blockquote><blockquote>विद्वांसः शिल्पिनो यत्र निचयाश्च सुसञ्चिताः। धार्मिकश्च जनो यत्र दाक्ष्यमुत्तममास्थितः॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.7)</blockquote>Summary: Characteristically a raja should inhabit that kind of a place (fortress or city) which had the following features

Ancient rulers of India attached great importance to the construction and maintenance of forts and fortresses, for they served as the main base to defend the country against invasions of the enemy. Bhishma describes the qualities of such a place of residence of a raja to Yudhishtira,<ref name=":3">Pt. Ramnarayandatt Shastri. ''Mahabharata of Veda Vyasa, Shanti Parva Volume 5 Hindi Translation.''  Gorakhpur: Gita Press (Pages 4647-4648)</ref><blockquote>यत्पुरं दुर्गसम्पन्नं धान्यायुधसमन्वितम्।</blockquote><blockquote>दृढप्राकारपरिखं हस्त्यश्वरथसङ्कुलम्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.6)</blockquote><blockquote>विद्वांसः शिल्पिनो यत्र निचयाश्च सुसञ्चिताः।</blockquote><blockquote>धार्मिकश्च जनो यत्र दाक्ष्यमुत्तममास्थितः॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.7)</blockquote><blockquote>yatpuraṁ durgasampannaṁ dhānyāyudhasamanvitam।</blockquote><blockquote>dr̥ḍhaprākāraparikhaṁ hastyaśvarathasaṅkulam॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.6)</blockquote><blockquote>vidvāṁsaḥ śilpino yatra nicayāśca susañcitāḥ।</blockquote><blockquote>dhārmikaśca jano yatra dākṣyamuttamamāsthitaḥ॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.7)</blockquote>Summary: Characteristically a raja should inhabit that kind of a place (fortress or city) which had the following features

* surrounded with strong gates and huge walls

* surrounded with strong gates and huge walls

* fortifications either natural or artificial

* fortifications either natural or artificial

* having a strong judicial system  

* having a strong judicial system  

* having place of music and arts

* having place of music and arts

Further such a habitation should always be filled with strong people engaged in various social and cultural activities, where houses are built in an orderly manner, well decorated and people live fearlessly in them. Such a place should be filled with the sounds of vedic recitations and worship of devatas should continue uninterruptedly.<ref name=":3" /> A fort offers exceptional ways of defense; standing behind the battlements of the citadel one archer (धनुर्धरः) could easily withstand one hundred archers and one hundred archers ten thousand such men.<blockquote>एकः शतं योधयति प्राकारस्थो धनुर्धरः । शतं दशसहस्राणि तस्माद्दुर्गं विधीयते । । ७.७४ । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.74)<ref name=":4">Manusmrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 7])</ref></blockquote>

Further such a habitation should always be filled with strong people engaged in various social and cultural activities, where houses are built in an orderly manner, well decorated and people live fearlessly in them. Such a place should be filled with the sounds of vedic recitations and worship of devatas should continue uninterruptedly.<ref name=":3" /> A fort offers exceptional ways of defense; standing behind the battlements of the citadel one archer (धनुर्धरः) could easily withstand one hundred archers and one hundred archers ten thousand such men.<blockquote>एकः शतं योधयति प्राकारस्थो धनुर्धरः । </blockquote><blockquote>शतं दशसहस्राणि तस्माद्दुर्गं विधीयते । । ७.७४ । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.74)<ref name=":4">Manusmrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 7])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>ekaḥ śataṁ yodhayati prākārastho dhanurdharaḥ । </blockquote><blockquote>śataṁ daśasahasrāṇi tasmāddurgaṁ vidhīyate । । 7.74 । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.74)</blockquote>

== Literary References of Forts ==

== Literary References of Forts ==

Several ancient literary references to fortresses are available which are both interesting and valuable. '''Rigveda''' mentions about tribes living in fortifications known by पूर् । Pur, more like the suffix of city names used till date. Brahmana literature also features many references to citadels used by the rulers. In '''Kaushitaki Brahmana''', Upaasadas are described as the citadels of Asuras. Interesting anecdote about the Tripurasuras, the three asura brothers who built cities of gold, silver and iron in different strata of earth and who were killed by Shiva, may be recollected in the puranas. It may be safely said that the use of forts was well known to the people of vedic times.<ref name=":2">Dikshitar, Ramachandra. V. R. (1944) ''War in Ancient India.'' London: MacMillian and Co., Ltd. (Page 247)</ref>

Several ancient literary references to fortresses are available which are both interesting and valuable. '''Rigveda''' mentions about tribes living in fortifications known by पूर् । Pur, more like the suffix of city names used till date. Brahmana literature also features many references to citadels used by the rulers. In '''Kaushitaki Brahmana''', Upaasadas are described as the citadels of Asuras. Interesting anecdote about the Tripurasuras, the three asura brothers who built cities of gold, silver and iron in different strata of earth and who were killed by Shiva, may be recollected in the puranas. It may be safely said that the use of forts was well known to the people of vedic times.<ref name=":2">Dikshitar, Ramachandra. V. R. (1944) ''War in Ancient India.'' London: MacMillian and Co., Ltd. (Page 247)</ref>

Agnipurana (Agni. Pura. 222)<ref>Agni Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 222])</ref> and '''Manusmrti''' among Dharmashastras details the six kinds of forts and their usage in general. Both texts agree that all rulers should with willful effort include Giridurga (hill fortress) for it is by many qualities superior (in offering protection).<ref name=":2" /> <blockquote>सर्वेण तु प्रयत्नेन गिरिदुर्गं समाश्रयेत् । एषां हि बाहुगुण्येन गिरिदुर्गं विशिष्यते । । ७.७१ । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.71)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>In the '''Ramayana''', we find extensive description of fort cities of Ayodhya of Ikshvaku dynasty and the Lankapuri of Ravanasura. Apart from description of the common features of a fort such as huge insurmountable walls, moats, openings covered with invisible obstructions, huge gates sealed with massive beams and bolts, gateways and broad passages, residential quarters, Hanuman refers to Attalakas which were places for locating both movable and immovable defense weapons and chaitya for the worship of the guardian deity of the country.   

Agnipurana (Agni. Pura. 222)<ref>Agni Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 222])</ref> and '''Manusmrti''' among Dharmashastras details the six kinds of forts and their usage in general. Both texts agree that all rulers should with willful effort include Giridurga (hill fortress) for it is by many qualities superior (in offering protection).<ref name=":2" /> <blockquote>सर्वेण तु प्रयत्नेन गिरिदुर्गं समाश्रयेत् । </blockquote><blockquote>एषां हि बाहुगुण्येन गिरिदुर्गं विशिष्यते । । ७.७१ । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.71)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote><blockquote>sarveṇa tu prayatnena giridurgaṁ samāśrayet । </blockquote><blockquote>eṣāṁ hi bāhuguṇyena giridurgaṁ viśiṣyate । । 7.71 । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.71)</blockquote>In the '''Ramayana''', we find extensive description of fort cities of Ayodhya of Ikshvaku dynasty and the Lankapuri of Ravanasura. Apart from description of the common features of a fort such as huge insurmountable walls, moats, openings covered with invisible obstructions, huge gates sealed with massive beams and bolts, gateways and broad passages, residential quarters, Hanuman refers to Attalakas which were places for locating both movable and immovable defense weapons and chaitya for the worship of the guardian deity of the country.   

'''Mahabharata''' Shantiparva (राजधर्मानुशासनपर्व) also provides ample information about forts and warfare. According to Bhishma, a fort surrounded by a huge wall and a ditch full of water, furnished with only one entrance is the best.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>आवासस्तोयवान्दुर्ग एकमार्गः प्रशस्यते॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.100.15)</blockquote>In medieval times the conception of forts was not very different from that in ancient India. '''Kautilya's Arthashastra''' and '''Manasarasilpashastra''' throw light on the construction of forts and warfare of those times. Manasara defines the Padmaka type of a fortress city having eight, twelve or sixteen gates and the whole surrounded by a huge wall and a moat. Manasara is an important text that discusses the [[Nagara Vinyasa Tattvas (नगरविन्यासतत्त्वानि)|Nagaravinyasa tattvas]] or the principles used in town and village planning. A more recent valuable work Viramitrodaya Lakshana Prakasa<ref>Pt. Vishnu Prasad. (1916) ''Viramitrodaya, Lakshana Prakasa by Mm. Pandita Mitra Mishra. Volume 20.'' Benares: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. (Pages 238-242)</ref>, describes the lakshanas of fort, the kinds of forts and their uses as given in various texts. The description of the six kinds of forts as given by Ushanas (Sukracharya) in Sukrasmriti in Lakshana prakasa with utmost detail.  

'''Mahabharata''' Shantiparva (राजधर्मानुशासनपर्व) also provides ample information about forts and warfare. According to Bhishma, a fort surrounded by a huge wall and a ditch full of water, furnished with only one entrance is the best.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>आवासस्तोयवान्दुर्ग एकमार्गः प्रशस्यते॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.100.15)</blockquote><blockquote>āvāsastoyavāndurga ekamārgaḥ praśasyate॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.100.15)</blockquote>In medieval times the conception of forts was not very different from that in ancient India. '''Kautilya's Arthashastra''' and '''Manasarasilpashastra''' throw light on the construction of forts and warfare of those times. Manasara defines the Padmaka type of a fortress city having eight, twelve or sixteen gates and the whole surrounded by a huge wall and a moat. Manasara is an important text that discusses the [[Nagara Vinyasa Tattvas (नगरविन्यासतत्त्वानि)|Nagaravinyasa tattvas]] or the principles used in town and village planning. A more recent valuable work Viramitrodaya Lakshana Prakasa<ref>Pt. Vishnu Prasad. (1916) ''Viramitrodaya, Lakshana Prakasa by Mm. Pandita Mitra Mishra. Volume 20.'' Benares: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. (Pages 238-242)</ref>, describes the lakshanas of fort, the kinds of forts and their uses as given in various texts. The description of the six kinds of forts as given by Ushanas (Sukracharya) in Sukrasmriti in Lakshana prakasa with utmost detail.  

== दुर्गभेदाः ॥ Kinds of Forts ==

== दुर्गभेदाः ॥ Kinds of Forts ==

References to six kinds of fortifications are found in Puranas (Agni Purana Adhyaya 106, Vishnupurana Adhyaya 3) and Mahabharata.<ref name=":2" />   

References to six kinds of fortifications are found in Puranas (Agni Purana Adhyaya 106, Vishnupurana Adhyaya 3) and Mahabharata.<ref name=":2" />   

According to '''Manusmrti''', forts are of following six kinds.<blockquote>धन्वदुर्गं महीदुर्गं अब्दुर्गं वार्क्षं एव वा । नृदुर्गं गिरिदुर्गं वा समाश्रित्य वसेत्पुरम् । । ७.७० । ।(Manu. Smrt. 7.71)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>In '''Mahabharata's''' Shanti parva, (Adhyaya 86) Bhishma describes the place of residence of the rajas, and their forts, and the issues related to ruling the people. <blockquote>षड्विधं दुर्गमास्थाय पुराण्यथ निवेशयेत्। सर्वसम्पत्प्रधानं यद्बाहुल्यं चापि सम्भवेत्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.4)</blockquote><blockquote>धन्वदुर्गं महीदुर्गं गिरिदुर्गं तथैव च। मनुष्यदुर्गं अब्दुर्गं वनदुर्गं च तानि षट्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.5)</blockquote>Summary: A raja has to build his new nagara/residence in a suitable wide area having all kinds of abundance, based on six kinds of fortitudes. They are as follows

According to '''Manusmrti''', forts are of following six kinds.<blockquote>धन्वदुर्गं महीदुर्गं अब्दुर्गं वार्क्षं एव वा । </blockquote><blockquote>नृदुर्गं गिरिदुर्गं वा समाश्रित्य वसेत्पुरम् । । ७.७० । ।(Manu. Smrt. 7.71)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote><blockquote>dhanvadurgaṁ mahīdurgaṁ abdurgaṁ vārkṣaṁ eva vā । </blockquote><blockquote>nr̥durgaṁ giridurgaṁ vā samāśritya vasetpuram । । 7.70 । ।(Manu. Smrt. 7.71)</blockquote>In '''Mahabharata's''' Shanti parva, (Adhyaya 86) Bhishma describes the place of residence of the rajas, and their forts, and the issues related to ruling the people. <blockquote>षड्विधं दुर्गमास्थाय पुराण्यथ निवेशयेत्। </blockquote><blockquote>सर्वसम्पत्प्रधानं यद्बाहुल्यं चापि सम्भवेत्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.4)</blockquote><blockquote>धन्वदुर्गं महीदुर्गं गिरिदुर्गं तथैव च। मनुष्यदुर्गं अब्दुर्गं वनदुर्गं च तानि षट्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.5)</blockquote><blockquote>ṣaḍvidhaṁ durgamāsthāya purāṇyatha niveśayet। </blockquote><blockquote>sarvasampatpradhānaṁ yadbāhulyaṁ cāpi sambhavet॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.4)</blockquote><blockquote>dhanvadurgaṁ mahīdurgaṁ giridurgaṁ tathaiva ca। </blockquote><blockquote>manuṣyadurgaṁ abdurgaṁ vanadurgaṁ ca tāni ṣaṭ॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.5)</blockquote>Summary: A raja has to build his new nagara/residence in a suitable wide area having all kinds of abundance, based on six kinds of fortitudes. They are as follows

# धन्वदुर्गं ॥ Dhanvadurga: Also called Marudurg (मरुदुर्गम्), it is a fort covered with sand on all sides.

# धन्वदुर्गं ॥ Dhanvadurga: Also called Marudurg (मरुदुर्गम्), it is a fort covered with sand on all sides.

# महीदुर्गं ॥ Mahidurga: A fort constructed underground in a plain area

# महीदुर्गं ॥ Mahidurga: A fort constructed underground in a plain area

# अब्दुर्गं ॥ Abdurga: A fort surrounded by water on all sides  

# अब्दुर्गं ॥ Abdurga: A fort surrounded by water on all sides  

# वनदुर्गं ॥ Vanadurga: A fort in the midst of thick forest area

# वनदुर्गं ॥ Vanadurga: A fort in the midst of thick forest area

According to '''Shukraniti''', there are different types of forts, based on the physical location of the site and on the basis of the troops or allies involved. Among these, Parikha (पारिखः) is a fortress is surrounded on all sides by ditches, Parigha (पारिघः) is the one that is protected by walls of bricks, stones and mud. Dhanva (धन्वदुर्गः) has no water around it; whereas Jala (जलदुर्गः) is the fort that is surrounded by abundant sheets of water. Giri (गिरिदुर्गः) fort is on a high-level and is supplied with plenty of water. Sahaya (सहाय​) is the fort that is created by valorous and friendly kinsfolk. <blockquote>परितस्तु महाखातं पारिखं दुर्गमेव तत्। इष्ककोपेलमृद्भित्तिप्राकारं पारिघं स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.2)</blockquote>It also brings out the order of preference of the various types of forts in the following shloka<blockquote>परिखादैरिणं श्रेष्ठं पारिघं तु ततो वनम्। ततो धन्वजलं तस्माद् गिरिदुर्गं ततः स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.6)</blockquote>'''Samarangana Sutradhara''' by Raja Bhoja is another equally important work on architecture which mentions four kinds of forts; one surrounded by a chain of lofty hills difficult to scale is the Giridurga or mountain citadel. Full of thorns, shrubs and trees, interspersed with small areas of water on every side and with secret passages leading to and from it, is the muladurga or forest fort. Surrounded by deep waters on all four sides and presenting a beautiful appearance is the Jaladurga, followed by a fort in the desert areas. '''Sivattavaratnakara,''' another text, mentions nine kinds of fortresses; to the six described in Mahabharata, three more are added. This shows that as time went by, the types of fortresses increased in number. According to this text, the best are the mountain and water fortifications while Darudurga (forest forts) and Naradurga belong to the inferior kinds.<ref name=":2" />

According to '''Shukraniti''', there are different types of forts, based on the physical location of the site and on the basis of the troops or allies involved. Among these, Parikha (पारिखः) is a fortress is surrounded on all sides by ditches, Parigha (पारिघः) is the one that is protected by walls of bricks, stones and mud. Dhanva (धन्वदुर्गः) has no water around it; whereas Jala (जलदुर्गः) is the fort that is surrounded by abundant sheets of water. Giri (गिरिदुर्गः) fort is on a high-level and is supplied with plenty of water. Sahaya (सहाय​) is the fort that is created by valorous and friendly kinsfolk. <blockquote>परितस्तु महाखातं पारिखं दुर्गमेव तत्। </blockquote><blockquote>इष्ककोपेलमृद्भित्तिप्राकारं पारिघं स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.2)</blockquote><blockquote>paritastu mahākhātaṁ pārikhaṁ durgameva tat। </blockquote><blockquote>iṣkakopelamr̥dbhittiprākāraṁ pārighaṁ smr̥tam॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.2)</blockquote>It also brings out the order of preference of the various types of forts in the following shloka<blockquote>परिखादैरिणं श्रेष्ठं पारिघं तु ततो वनम्। </blockquote><blockquote>ततो धन्वजलं तस्माद् गिरिदुर्गं ततः स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.6)</blockquote><blockquote>parikhādairiṇaṁ śreṣṭhaṁ pārighaṁ tu tato vanam। </blockquote><blockquote>tato dhanvajalaṁ tasmād giridurgaṁ tataḥ smr̥tam॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.6)</blockquote>'''Samarangana Sutradhara''' by Raja Bhoja is another equally important work on architecture which mentions four kinds of forts; one surrounded by a chain of lofty hills difficult to scale is the Giridurga or mountain citadel. Full of thorns, shrubs and trees, interspersed with small areas of water on every side and with secret passages leading to and from it, is the muladurga or forest fort. Surrounded by deep waters on all four sides and presenting a beautiful appearance is the Jaladurga, followed by a fort in the desert areas. '''Sivattavaratnakara,''' another text, mentions nine kinds of fortresses; to the six described in Mahabharata, three more are added. This shows that as time went by, the types of fortresses increased in number. According to this text, the best are the mountain and water fortifications while Darudurga (forest forts) and Naradurga belong to the inferior kinds.<ref name=":2" />

== दुर्गनिर्माणम् ॥ Design of Forts ==

== दुर्गनिर्माणम् ॥ Design of Forts ==

=== Yantras in a Fort ===

=== Yantras in a Fort ===

There were a variety of weapons housed inside the fort to attack enemy and defend the fort. There are basically two types of such instruments. One is sthira and the other cala. Arthashastra mentions enlists a number of weapons:<blockquote>सर्वतोभद्रजामदग्न्यबहुमुखविश्वासघातिसङ्घाटीयानकपर्जन्यकबाहूर्ध्वबाह्वर्ध्बाहूनि स्थितयन्त्राणि। (Arth. Shas. 2.18.5)<ref name=":0">Arthashastra (Adhikarana 2, Adhyaya 18)  

There were a variety of weapons housed inside the fort to attack enemy and defend the fort. There are basically two types of such instruments. One is sthira and the other cala. Arthashastra mentions enlists a number of weapons:<blockquote>सर्वतोभद्रजामदग्न्यबहुमुखविश्वासघातिसङ्घाटीयानकपर्जन्यकबाहूर्ध्वबाह्वर्ध्बाहूनि स्थितयन्त्राणि। (Arth. Shas. 2.18.5)<ref name=":0">Arthashastra (Adhikarana 2, Adhyaya 18)  

</ref></blockquote><blockquote>पाञ्चालिकदेवदण्डसूकरिकामुसलयष्टिहस्तिवारकतालवृन्तमुद्ग्ररगदास्पृक्तलाकुद्दालास्फोटिमोत्पाटिमोद्घाटिमशतग्नित्रिशूलचक्राणि चलयन्त्राणि। (Arth. Shas. 2.18.6)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>Dr. Raghavan in his Mechanical Contrivances presents a clear picture of the various [[Yantra Shastra (यन्त्रशास्त्रम्)|yantra]] or weapons used in forts.<ref name=":1">Raghavan, V. (1952) ''Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in  Ancient India''. Bangalore: The Indian Institute of Culture</ref>

</ref></blockquote><blockquote>पाञ्चालिकदेवदण्डसूकरिकामुसलयष्टिहस्तिवारकतालवृन्तमुद्ग्ररगदास्पृक्तलाकुद्दालास्फोटिमोत्पाटिमोद्घाटिमशतग्नित्रिशूलचक्राणि चलयन्त्राणि। (Arth. Shas. 2.18.6)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>sarvatobhadrajāmadagnyabahumukhaviśvāsaghātisaṅghāṭīyānakaparjanyakabāhūrdhvabāhvardhbāhūni sthitayantrāṇi। (Arth. Shas. 2.18.5)</blockquote><blockquote>pāñcālikadevadaṇḍasūkarikāmusalayaṣṭihastivārakatālavr̥ntamudgraragadāspr̥ktalākuddālāsphoṭimotpāṭimodghāṭimaśatagnitriśūlacakrāṇi calayantrāṇi। (Arth. Shas. 2.18.6)</blockquote>Dr. Raghavan in his Mechanical Contrivances presents a clear picture of the various [[Yantra Shastra (यन्त्रशास्त्रम्)|yantra]] or weapons used in forts.<ref name=":1">Raghavan, V. (1952) ''Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in  Ancient India''. Bangalore: The Indian Institute of Culture</ref>

==== Types of Sthirayantras (स्थिरयन्त्रम्) ====

==== Types of Sthirayantras (स्थिरयन्त्रम्) ====

=== Doshas in Forts ===

=== Doshas in Forts ===

The Agnipurana specifies five defects as seriously impairing the strength and value of fortresses in general. These are <blockquote>विशीर्णयन्त्रप्राकारपरिखात्वमशस्त्रता । क्षीणया सेनया नद्धं दुर्गव्यसनमुच्यते ।। २४१.२८ ।। (Agni. Pura. 241.28)<ref>Agni Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%A7 Adhyaya 241])</ref></blockquote>

The Agnipurana specifies five defects as seriously impairing the strength and value of fortresses in general. These are <blockquote>विशीर्णयन्त्रप्राकारपरिखात्वमशस्त्रता । </blockquote><blockquote>क्षीणया सेनया नद्धं दुर्गव्यसनमुच्यते ।। २४१.२८ ।। (Agni. Pura. 241.28)<ref>Agni Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%A7 Adhyaya 241])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>viśīrṇayantraprākāraparikhātvamaśastratā । </blockquote><blockquote>kṣīṇayā senayā naddhaṁ durgavyasanamucyate ।। 241.28 ।। (Agni. Pura. 241.28)</blockquote>

# drying and silting up of the ditch with sand and mud

# drying and silting up of the ditch with sand and mud

# bad and neglected condition of the ramparts and towers

# bad and neglected condition of the ramparts and towers

== दुर्गलम्भहेतवः॥ Siege of fort ==

== दुर्गलम्भहेतवः॥ Siege of fort ==

Kautilya opines that siege is by five different methods  

Kautilya opines that siege is by five different methods <blockquote>उपजापोऽपसर्पो वा वमनं पर्युपासनम्। </blockquote><blockquote>अवमर्दश्च पञ्चैते दुर्गलम्भस्य हेतवः॥ (Arth. Shas. 13.4.63)<ref>Arthashastra ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%85%E0%A Adhikarana 13 Adhyaya 4])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>upajāpo'pasarpo vā vamanaṁ paryupāsanam। </blockquote><blockquote>avamardaśca pañcaite durgalambhasya hetavaḥ॥ (Arth. Shas. 13.4.63)</blockquote>

 

उपजापोऽपसर्पो वा वमनं पर्युपासनम्। अवमर्दश्च पञ्चैते दुर्गलम्भस्य हेतवः॥ (Arth. Shas. 13.4.63)<ref>Arthashastra ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%85%E0%A Adhikarana 13 Adhyaya 4])</ref>

* Upajapa (उपजापः) Kautilya always emphasises the need for a procedure which reduces the enemy’s forces. This enhances the surety of victory for the king. A messenger speaks high of the king, his omniscience  and tries to create sense of awe towards him in the enemy.Astrologers, soothsayers, horologists, pauranikas should publicise the king’s  power in associating with Gods. There should be repeated efforts to portray the enemy in poor light.The needs of the people of the enemy should be taken care of. At times of suffering the seeds of dissension should be sown effectively by saying :“ राजानमनुग्रहं याचामहे निरनुग्रहः परत्र गच्छामः।” When people agree to this they should be supplied with abundance of money, food and presents. All necessary help should be provided.

* Upajapa (उपजापः) Kautilya always emphasises the need for a procedure which reduces the enemy’s forces. This enhances the surety of victory for the king. A messenger speaks high of the king, his omniscience  and tries to create sense of awe towards him in the enemy.Astrologers, soothsayers, horologists, pauranikas should publicise the king’s  power in associating with Gods. There should be repeated efforts to portray the enemy in poor light.The needs of the people of the enemy should be taken care of. At times of suffering the seeds of dissension should be sown effectively by saying :“ राजानमनुग्रहं याचामहे निरनुग्रहः परत्र गच्छामः।” When people agree to this they should be supplied with abundance of money, food and presents. All necessary help should be provided.