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Alchemy was one of the chief areas for the exploration of mercurial compounds, as specialists in medicine like Charaka, believed in the search for the ideal rasa or elixir which could prolong life indefinitely. They believed in therapeutic values of organic as well as inorganic materials such as metals and metallic compounds; they also aspired to convert base metals into gold. This alchemical dream was boosted when Nagarjuna claimed (Rasaratnakara - 1.3) that zinc ore roasted thrice with copper converts the latter into 'gold'. However, it was gold-like, brilliant yellow brass that came into existence.<ref name=":1" />  

Alchemy was one of the chief areas for the exploration of mercurial compounds, as specialists in medicine like Charaka, believed in the search for the ideal rasa or elixir which could prolong life indefinitely. They believed in therapeutic values of organic as well as inorganic materials such as metals and metallic compounds; they also aspired to convert base metals into gold. This alchemical dream was boosted when Nagarjuna claimed (Rasaratnakara - 1.3) that zinc ore roasted thrice with copper converts the latter into 'gold'. However, it was gold-like, brilliant yellow brass that came into existence.<ref name=":1" />  

Many textual evidences which speak about gems, minerals and metals include the Rig and Yajurvedic references, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira, Rasaratnakara of Nagarjuna, Rasarnava, Ratnapariksha, Rasaratnasamucchaya and Agastimata.  

Many textual evidences which speak about gems, minerals and metals include the Rig and Yajurvedic references of antiquity, while early pre-christian era texts such as Kautilya's Arthashastra deal extensively about the ratnas or gems apart from other untraced books like Mahakala or Vyaadi. Rasaratnakara of Nagarjuna traced to 2nd century A.D. and Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira of 5th century throw light on many aspects of ratnapariksha. The pre-modern texts like Vagbhata's Ashtangahridaya, Rasarnava (12th Century A.D.), Ratnapariksha by Buddhabhatta, Rasaratnasamucchaya and Agastimata are exclusive medieval texts which are quite valuable even in present day to adapt and improvise the chemical techniques followed in the present day.

 

 

 

 

 

There are many legends about the origin of metals and gems in the vaidika vangmaya. Many puranas discuss about the origin of gold from the semen of Shiva.  

Ratnapariksa and Agastimata narrated the legend that gems had been derived from the body of the slain demon Bala: diamond from his bones, pearl from the teeth, ruby from the blood, sapphire from the eyes, emerald from the bile etc. The mythical bird Garuda had taken the green bile of the demon in its  mouth and then vomitted it (hence the name Garutmata and Garudodgaara) on a mountain on the sea- coast near a desert 'beyond Barbara country’. Both Ratnapariksha and Agastimata mentioned Garuda as the ruler of the serpents hence called pannagadhipah. Panna also means something fallen down or dropped. Thus, the dropped bile or the green emerald also came to be known as panna.<ref name=":2">Biswas, Arun Kumar. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mining: Page 225 - 255)</ref>

Ratnapariksa and Agastimata narrated the legend that gems had been derived from the body of the slain demon Bala: diamond from his bones, pearl from the teeth, ruby from the blood, sapphire from the eyes, emerald from the bile etc. The mythical bird Garuda had taken the green bile of the demon in its  mouth and then vomitted it (hence the name Garutmata and Garudodgaara) on a mountain on the sea- coast near a desert 'beyond Barbara country’. Both Ratnapariksha and Agastimata mentioned Garuda as the ruler of the serpents hence called pannagadhipah. Panna also means something fallen down or dropped. Thus, the dropped bile or the green emerald also came to be known as panna.<ref name=":2">Biswas, Arun Kumar. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Chapter Mining: Page 225 - 255)</ref>

In his Brhat Samhita, Varahamihira gave a scientific explanation that the gems were caused by the characteristic qualities of the earth. <blockquote>रत्नानि बलाद्दैत्याद्दधीचितोऽन्ये वदन्ति जातानि । केचिद्भुवः स्वभावाद्वैचित्र्यं प्राहुरुपलानाम् ।। (Brht. Samh. 80.3)</blockquote>Meaning: Gems, they say, were born of the bones of the daitya Bala; while others state that they were born of Dadichi; yet others say that the wonderful variety of germs is caused by the characteristic qualities of the earth.<ref name=":3">Sastri, V. Subrahmanya and Bhat. M. Ramakrishna, (1946) ''Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita with an English Translation and Notes.'' Bangalore City: V. B. Soobbiah and Sons (Page 628 - 629)</ref>

In his Brhat Samhita, Varahamihira gave a scientific explanation that the gems were caused by the characteristic qualities of the earth. <blockquote>रत्नानि बलाद्दैत्याद्दधीचितोऽन्ये वदन्ति जातानि । केचिद्भुवः स्वभावाद्वैचित्र्यं प्राहुरुपलानाम् ।। (Brht. Samh. 80.3)</blockquote>Meaning: Gems, they say, were born of the bones of the daitya Bala; while others state that they were born of Dadichi; yet others say that the wonderful variety of germs is caused by the characteristic qualities of the earth.<ref name=":3">Sastri, V. Subrahmanya and Bhat. M. Ramakrishna, (1946) ''Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita with an English Translation and Notes.'' Bangalore City: V. B. Soobbiah and Sons (Page 628 - 629)</ref>

== Gem-Minerals ==

== Gem-Minerals ==

Description of the essential qualities of gems is <blockquote>वज्रैन्द्रनील-मरकतकर्केतरपद्मरागरुधिरऽख्याः ।  वैदूर्य[क्.वैडूर्य]पुलकविमलकराजमणिस्फटिकशशिकान्ताः ।। </blockquote><blockquote>सौगन्धिक-गोमेदक-शङ्ख-महानील-पुष्परागऽख्याः । ब्रह्ममणि-ज्योतीरस-सस्यक-मुक्ता-प्रवालानि ।। (Brht. Samh. 80.4-5)</blockquote>Meaning: The following are the gems: Vajra (Diamonds), Indranila (Sapphire), Marakata (Emerald), Arkata (Agate), Padmaraga (Ruby), Rudhira (Blood-stone), Vaidurya (Beryl), Pulaka (Amethyst), Vimalaka, Rajamani, Spatika (Quartz), Shashikanta (moon-gem), Saugandhika, Gomedaka (Zircon), Shankha (Conch Shell), Mahanila (Azure), Pushparaga (Topaz), Brahma-mani, Jyoteerasa, Sasyaka, Mukta (Pearl), Pravala (Coral).<ref name=":3" />  

Earliest complete description of the gems is given in texts such as Arthashastra and Brhat Samhita.  <blockquote>वज्रैन्द्रनील-मरकतकर्केतरपद्मरागरुधिरऽख्याः ।  वैदूर्य[क्.वैडूर्य]पुलकविमलकराजमणिस्फटिकशशिकान्ताः ।। </blockquote><blockquote>सौगन्धिक-गोमेदक-शङ्ख-महानील-पुष्परागऽख्याः । ब्रह्ममणि-ज्योतीरस-सस्यक-मुक्ता-प्रवालानि ।। (Brht. Samh. 80.4-5)</blockquote>Meaning: The following are the gems: Vajra (Diamonds), Indranila (Sapphire), Marakata (Emerald), Arkata (Agate), Padmaraga (Ruby), Rudhira (Blood-stone), Vaidurya (Beryl), Pulaka (Amethyst), Vimalaka, Rajamani, Spatika (Quartz), Shashikanta (moon-gem), Saugandhika, Gomedaka (Zircon), Shankha (Conch Shell), Mahanila (Azure), Pushparaga (Topaz), Brahma-mani, Jyoteerasa, Sasyaka, Mukta (Pearl), Pravala (Coral).<ref name=":3" />  

The names of many minerals and elements that we find in European languages were originally derived from Samskrit, having strong etymological roots. A few samskrit origins of minerals are as follows.<ref name=":2" />  

The names of many minerals and elements that we find in European languages were originally derived from Samskrit, having strong etymological roots. A few samskrit origins of minerals are as follows.<ref name=":2" />  

== The Ores of Metals ==

== The Ores of Metals ==

'''Gold and Silver''': Early reference to gold is to be found in the Rigveda samhita. The noble metals, gold and silver, are found in the native state, and were used to make jewellery and sheet metal due to the great ductility and lustre of the pure metals.  In ancient times, gold was collected by panning alluvial sands from placer deposits. However, India has the distinction that the deepest ancient mines in the world for gold come from the Maski region of Karnataka with carbon dates from the middle of the first millennium BC. Interestingly, as far as silver production goes, the Aravalli region in North-West India ranks amongst the few major ancient silver producing sites in the world.  

 

=== Gold and Silver ===

Early reference to gold is to be found in the Rigveda samhita. The noble metals, gold and silver, are found in the native state, and were used to make jewellery and sheet metal due to the great ductility and lustre of the pure metals.  In ancient times, gold was collected by panning alluvial sands from placer deposits. However, India has the distinction that the deepest ancient mines in the world for gold come from the Maski region of Karnataka with carbon dates from the middle of the first millennium BC. Interestingly, as far as silver production goes, the Aravalli region in North-West India ranks amongst the few major ancient silver producing sites in the world.  

 

 

 

'''Copper''': Early copper artifacts are reported from the pre-Indus valley sites of Baluchistan, the northwestern part of Indian subcontinent. Evidence of ancient mining of copper ores was from the Khetri region of Rajasthan in India dating to about 3rd-2nd millennium BC. Huge quantities of copper objects such as blades, arrow-heads, fish hooks were found from the sites of Pre-harappan excavations. It may be asserted based on evidence that copper metallurgy was developed indigenously in the Indian subcontinent well before 4000 BC.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4" />

=== Lead ===

== References ==

== References ==

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