Changes

== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

One of the important preoccupations of top management is the improvement of managerial performance<ref name=":1">Adhia, H., Nagendra, H. R., & Mahadevan, B. (2010). Impact of adoption of yoga way of life on the emotional intelligence of managers. ''IIMB Management Review'', ''22''(1-2), 32-41.</ref>. Over the last several decades management researchers have developed constructs to identify the factors that influence managerial performance, and have sought to provide a framework to explain performance. In this context, there is a popular perception that individuals of seemingly average intelligence often do well in their professional and personal lives, whereas people with high IQ often struggle with life’s challenges. Therefore, it would be useful to question the assumption that general intelligence is a sufficiently good predictor of success in life. Earlier researchers have suggested that other attributes may be better determinants<ref>Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.</ref><ref>Sternberg, R. J. (1993). Intelligence is more than IQ: The practical side of intelligence. ''Journal of Cooperative Education'', ''28''(2), 6-17.</ref><ref>Sternberg, R. J. (1996). IQ counts, but what really counts is successful intelligence. ''NASSP Bulletin'', ''80''(583), 18-23.</ref><ref>Tapia, M. (2001). Measuring emotional intelligence. ''Psychological Reports'', ''88''(2), 353-364.</ref>. There is a vast repository of knowledge and accumulated experience in India on the role of yoga as a way of life in enabling individuals to lead successful and satisfied lives (see for example Becker, 2000<ref name=":3">Becker, I. (2000). Uses of yoga in psychiatry and medicine. ''Complementary and alternative medicine and psychiatry'', ''19'', 107-145.</ref>; Srinivas, 1994<ref name=":4">Srinivas, K. M. (1994). Organization development: Maya moksha. ''Work Motivation Models for Developing Country. New Delhi: Sage Publications''.</ref>). More specifically, the Bhagavad Gita, which explicates on yoga, sees that yoga begets high efficiency in work<ref name=":5">Ranganathananda, S. (2000). Universal message of the Bhagavad Gita.</ref> opening up possibilities of connections with managerial performance.  

One of the important preoccupations of top management is the improvement of managerial performance<ref name=":1">Adhia, H., Nagendra, H. R., & Mahadevan, B. (2010). Impact of adoption of yoga way of life on the emotional intelligence of managers. ''IIMB Management Review'', ''22''(1-2), 32-41.</ref>. Over the last several decades management researchers have developed constructs to identify the factors that influence managerial performance, and have sought to provide a framework to explain performance. In this context, there is a popular perception that individuals of seemingly average intelligence often do well in their professional and personal lives, whereas people with high IQ often struggle with life’s challenges. Therefore, it would be useful to question the assumption that general intelligence is a sufficiently good predictor of success in life. Earlier researchers have suggested that other attributes may be better determinants<ref name=":12">Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.</ref><ref>Sternberg, R. J. (1993). Intelligence is more than IQ: The practical side of intelligence. ''Journal of Cooperative Education'', ''28''(2), 6-17.</ref><ref>Sternberg, R. J. (1996). IQ counts, but what really counts is successful intelligence. ''NASSP Bulletin'', ''80''(583), 18-23.</ref><ref>Tapia, M. (2001). Measuring emotional intelligence. ''Psychological Reports'', ''88''(2), 353-364.</ref>. There is a vast repository of knowledge and accumulated experience in India on the role of yoga as a way of life in enabling individuals to lead successful and satisfied lives (see for example Becker, 2000<ref name=":3">Becker, I. (2000). Uses of yoga in psychiatry and medicine. ''Complementary and alternative medicine and psychiatry'', ''19'', 107-145.</ref>; Srinivas, 1994<ref name=":4">Srinivas, K. M. (1994). Organization development: Maya moksha. ''Work Motivation Models for Developing Country. New Delhi: Sage Publications''.</ref>). More specifically, the Bhagavad Gita, which explicates on yoga, sees that yoga begets high efficiency in work<ref name=":5">Ranganathananda, S. (2000). Universal message of the Bhagavad Gita.</ref> opening up possibilities of connections with managerial performance.  

This article utilizes the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) defined by earlier researchers to measure managerial performance, and explores the yoga way of life as a potential tool to influence the EI of individuals<ref name=":1" />.

This article utilizes the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) defined by earlier researchers to measure managerial performance, and explores the yoga way of life as a potential tool to influence the EI of individuals<ref name=":1" />.

== Emotional intelligence ==

== Emotional intelligence ==

Emotional intelligence (EI) is ‘a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate between them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action’<ref>Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. ''Imagination, cognition and personality'', ''9''(3), 185-211,  Page 5. </ref>.  Goleman (2000)<ref name=":0">Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that gets results. ''Harvard business review'', ''78''(2), 4-17.</ref> identifies five components of EI self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skill. In a later work<ref>Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional  intelligence? In P. Salovey, & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications New York: Basic Books. Page 5. </ref> Mayer and Salovey defined EI as the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth. Their definition of EI refers to the underlying intelligence factors that they feel are necessary in order to develop emotional competence (EC) skills. While the definition of EI is useful for making a distinction between general intelligence and emotional intelligence, the concept of EC is relevant if we have to talk about using EI for organisational success. The EC framework identifies two main categories: '''personal competence''' and '''social competence.''' A comparison of the dimensions considered by Goleman (1998)<ref name=":2">Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.</ref> and the framework offered by the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence<ref>Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations. (2004). Emotional competence framework. www.eiconsortium.org/research/emotional_competence_framework.htm</ref> (2004) reveals many similarities, and Goleman’s influence on the latter is evident. An analysis of these definitions and characteristics of EI leads us to conclude that EI is different from traditional views of intelligence based on cognitive factors suggesting a different kind of aptitude that is founded entirely on noncognitive aspects of behaviour<ref name=":0" />. Goleman’s research, conducted in 200 large, global companies reveals that -  EI especially at the highest levels of a company is the sine qua non for leadership<ref name=":0" />.   

Emotional intelligence (EI) is ‘a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate between them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action’<ref name=":13">Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. ''Imagination, cognition and personality'', ''9''(3), 185-211,  Page 5. </ref>.  Goleman (2000)<ref name=":0">Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that gets results. ''Harvard business review'', ''78''(2), 4-17.</ref> identifies five components of EI self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skill. In a later work<ref>Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional  intelligence? In P. Salovey, & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications New York: Basic Books. Page 5. </ref> Mayer and Salovey defined EI as the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth. Their definition of EI refers to the underlying intelligence factors that they feel are necessary in order to develop emotional competence (EC) skills. While the definition of EI is useful for making a distinction between general intelligence and emotional intelligence, the concept of EC is relevant if we have to talk about using EI for organisational success. The EC framework identifies two main categories: '''personal competence''' and '''social competence.''' A comparison of the dimensions considered by Goleman (1998)<ref name=":2">Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.</ref> and the framework offered by the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence<ref>Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations. (2004). Emotional competence framework. www.eiconsortium.org/research/emotional_competence_framework.htm</ref> (2004) reveals many similarities, and Goleman’s influence on the latter is evident. An analysis of these definitions and characteristics of EI leads us to conclude that EI is different from traditional views of intelligence based on cognitive factors suggesting a different kind of aptitude that is founded entirely on noncognitive aspects of behaviour<ref name=":0" />. Goleman’s research, conducted in 200 large, global companies reveals that -  EI especially at the highest levels of a company is the sine qua non for leadership<ref name=":0" />.   

A person can have first class training, an incisive mind, and a large supply of good ideas, but without EI it is unlikely that s/he will make a great leader. Goleman (1998)<ref name=":2" /> reports that emotional quotient (EQ) is twice as important as technical skills and intelligence quotient (IQ) for success in jobs at all levels, more so at the highest level in a company. Goleman suggests that the difference between star performers and average ones in senior leadership positions can be attributed more to EQ factors than to cognitive abilities. Emotional quotient has a champion in none other than Mahatma Gandhi who opined, ‘I know that ultimately one is guided not by the intellect, but by the heart. The heart accepts a conclusion for which the intellect subsequently finds reasoning. Man often finds reason in support of whatever he wants to do.<ref name=":6">Chakraborty, S. K., & Chakraborty, D. (2008). Spirituality in management - Means or end? Oxford University Press. Page 41</ref>   

A person can have first class training, an incisive mind, and a large supply of good ideas, but without EI it is unlikely that s/he will make a great leader. Goleman (1998)<ref name=":2" /> reports that emotional quotient (EQ) is twice as important as technical skills and intelligence quotient (IQ) for success in jobs at all levels, more so at the highest level in a company. Goleman suggests that the difference between star performers and average ones in senior leadership positions can be attributed more to EQ factors than to cognitive abilities. Emotional quotient has a champion in none other than Mahatma Gandhi who opined, ‘I know that ultimately one is guided not by the intellect, but by the heart. The heart accepts a conclusion for which the intellect subsequently finds reasoning. Man often finds reason in support of whatever he wants to do.<ref name=":6">Chakraborty, S. K., & Chakraborty, D. (2008). Spirituality in management - Means or end? Oxford University Press. Page 41</ref>   

== Research Objective and Methodology ==

== Research Objective and Methodology ==

Hypothesis    

So far no systematic attempt has been made to conduct a controlled study to identify the impact of adopting the yoga way of life on the emotional intelligence (EI) of managers. We would therefore like to study the relationship between them by hypothesizing the relationship between the yoga way of life and its impact on the EI of managers in a business organisation.    

So far no systematic attempt has been made to conduct a controlled study to identify the impact of adopting the yoga way of life on the emotional intelligence (EI) of managers. We would therefore like to study the relation- ship between them by hypothesising the relationship between the yoga way of life and its impact on the EI of managers in a business organisation.

=== Constructs for measurement of emotional intelligence ===

 

The scale used for this research was the Self-Reported EI Scale (SREIS) (Schutte et al., 1998<ref name=":14">Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., Hall, L. E., Haggerty, D. J., Cooper, J. T., & Golden, C. J. (1998). Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 25(2), 167e177.</ref>), which was developed to reflect Salovey and Mayer’s (1990)<ref name=":13" /> original ability model of EI and was validated in relation to dimensions of the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (Salovey et al 1995<ref>Salovey, P., Mayer, J. D., Goldman, S. L., Turvey, C., & Palfai, T. P. (1995). Emotional attention, clarity and repair: Exploring emotional intelligence using the trait meta-mood scale. In J. W. Pennebaker (Ed.), Emotion, disclosure and health (pp. 125e154). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2004.</ref>) as well as the characteristics usually identified as more relevant to trait models of EI (Goleman, 1995<ref name=":12" />) including alexithymia, optimism and impulse control. This 33-item EI scale assesses multiple aspects of EI including appraisal and expression of emotions, regulation of emotion and utilization of emotion. Participants rated the extent to which they agreed with each item on 7-point Likert type scales ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The SREIS measure is reported to have good internal consistency and test-retest reliability<ref name=":14" /> and has demonstrated predictive validity.  

Goleman (2000) opines that far too many training pro- grammes intended to build leadership skills, including EI, are ineffective because they focus on the wrong part of the brain.  

 

Emotional intelligence is born largely in the neuro- transmitters of the brain’s limbic system, which governs feelings, impulses, and drives. Research indicates that the limbic system learns best through motivation, extended practice, and feedback. On the other hand, the neocortex, which governs analytical and technical ability, grasps concepts and logic. It is the part of the brain that figures

 

also the part of the brain mistakenly targeted by most training programmes aimed at enhancing EI. Goleman (2000), quoting his research with the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence, maintains that organisational programmes which take a neocortical approach can even have a negative impact on job performance.  

 

We propose a null hypothesis of no impact of yoga way of life on the EI of managers.

 

Constructs for measurement of emotional intelligence  

 

The scale used for this research was the Self-Reported EI Scale (SREIS) (Schutte et al., 1998), which was developed to reflect Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) original ability model of EI and was validated in relation to dimensions of the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995) as well as the characteristics usually identified as more relevant to trait models of EI (Goleman, 1995) including alexithymia, optimism and impulse control. This 33-item EI scale assesses multiple aspects of EI including appraisal and expression of emotions, regulation of emotion and utilisation of emotion. Participants rated the extent to which they agreed with each item on 7-point Likert type scales ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The SREIS measure is reported to have good internal consistency and test-retest reliability (Schutte et al., 1998), and has demonstrated predictive validity.  

 

 

 

 

 

The present study was conducted in a manufacturing company in the state of Gujarat in western India, in one of the units manufacturing viscose staple fibre (VSF). The organisation is a flagship company of a large conglomerate, which ranks among India’s largest private sector companies. The VSF plant where this study was conducted was set up in 1996. The unit where this study was conducted has about 120 people in the managerial cadre and more than 1000 in the workers’ category. The average total work experience of the sample group is 16.11 years. Most of the employees reside in the township of the company, which made it easy to conduct the intervention of yoga.  

The present study was conducted in a manufacturing company in the state of Gujarat in western India, in one of the units manufacturing viscose staple fibre (VSF). The organisation is a flagship company of a large conglomerate, which ranks among India’s largest private sector companies. The VSF plant where this study was conducted was set up in 1996. The unit where this study was conducted has about 120 people in the managerial cadre and more than 1000 in the workers’ category. The average total work experience of the sample group is 16.11 years. Most of the employees reside in the township of the company, which made it easy to conduct the intervention of yoga.  

The salient aspects of the study methodology are sum- marised below:  

The salient aspects of the study methodology are summarised below:  

 

Impact of adoption of yoga way of life 37

 The managers of the company were given the option of participating in this study after the purpose and the modality of this experiment were explained to them. One of the expectations was regularity of attendance for the theory and practice sessions of the proposed study. Written consent for participating in the experiment was obtained.   Those who agreed to participate in the study were divided into two equal groups of 42 each; Group 1 was designated as the yoga group and group 2 as the physical exercise group, which was the control group for this experiment.  The yoga group was given 30 hours of yoga practice (75 minutes every day) and 25 hours of theory lectures on the philosophy of yoga spread over six weeks. The theory lectures were given by the first author of this article and included topics such as definitions of the yoga way of life, implications of the four types of yoga (Raja yoga, Karma yoga, Jnana yoga and Bhakti yoga) on life, analysis of the aspects of true happiness in life, Ashtanga yoga steps and the central theme of universality of consciousness as propounded in these texts.

The practice sessions for the elements of yoga which included asanas, pranayama and relaxation were con- ducted by a well-trained yoga instructor.   The control group was also given training in normal physical workout for an equal number of hours, and lectures on the success factors in life based on modern thought (that seeks to achieve success by systematic control of factors within one’s area of influence). This was necessary in order to obviate the possibility of the Hawthorne effect on the control group. The topics for theory given to this group included success and happi- ness, the importance of attitude, self-image, good relationship with others, goal setting, the power of the subconscious mind, communication, motivation and leadership. The practice given to this group included fast exercises such as spot jogging, bending, body rotation, hand and leg movements etc.   In order to test the hypothesis, EI was measured for both the groups, before and after the study, with the help of a standard self-reported questionnaire. In addition, measurements of certain physical parameters such as weight, body mass index, blood pressure, and blood sugar were taken for all, before and after the study.  The required data was taken before the commence- ment of the study on 17th September, 2007. The intervention to both the groups was simultaneously done between 18th September and 24th October, 2007. The post-study measurement was done on 24th October, 2007.  Out of the total of 42 in both groups, there were some who did not attend all the theory and practice classes on several days, and hence only the top 30 (in terms of regularity) were included for both groups in the final sample for the analysis. This came to a minimum attendance figure of 65% approximately for both groups. The profile of this group is summarised in Exhibit 3.  

The practice sessions for the elements of yoga which included asanas, pranayama and relaxation were con- ducted by a well-trained yoga instructor.   The control group was also given training in normal physical workout for an equal number of hours, and lectures on the success factors in life based on modern thought (that seeks to achieve success by systematic control of factors within one’s area of influence). This was necessary in order to obviate the possibility of the Hawthorne effect on the control group. The topics for theory given to this group included success and happi- ness, the importance of attitude, self-image, good relationship with others, goal setting, the power of the subconscious mind, communication, motivation and leadership. The practice given to this group included fast exercises such as spot jogging, bending, body rotation, hand and leg movements etc.   In order to test the hypothesis, EI was measured for both the groups, before and after the study, with the help of a standard self-reported questionnaire. In addition, measurements of certain physical parameters such as weight, body mass index, blood pressure, and blood sugar were taken for all, before and after the study.  The required data was taken before the commence- ment of the study on 17th September, 2007. The intervention to both the groups was simultaneously done between 18th September and 24th October, 2007. The post-study measurement was done on 24th October, 2007.  Out of the total of 42 in both groups, there were some who did not attend all the theory and practice classes on several days, and hence only the top 30 (in terms of regularity) were included for both groups in the final sample for the analysis. This came to a minimum attendance figure of 65% approximately for both groups. The profile of this group is summarised in Exhibit 3.