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== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

One of the important preoccupations of top management is the improvement of managerial performance<ref name=":1">Adhia, H., Nagendra, H. R., & Mahadevan, B. (2010). Impact of adoption of yoga way of life on the emotional intelligence of managers. ''IIMB Management Review'', ''22''(1-2), 32-41.</ref>. Over the last several decades management researchers have developed constructs to identify the factors that influence managerial performance, and have sought to provide a framework to explain performance. In this context, there is a popular perception that individuals of seemingly average intelligence often do well in their professional and personal lives, whereas people with high IQ often struggle with life’s challenges. Therefore, it would be useful to question the assumption that general intelligence is a sufficiently good predictor of success in life. Earlier researchers have suggested that other attributes may be better determinants<ref>Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.</ref><ref>Sternberg, R. J. (1993). Intelligence is more than IQ: The practical side of intelligence. ''Journal of Cooperative Education'', ''28''(2), 6-17.</ref><ref>Sternberg, R. J. (1996). IQ counts, but what really counts is successful intelligence. ''NASSP Bulletin'', ''80''(583), 18-23.</ref><ref>Tapia, M. (2001). Measuring emotional intelligence. ''Psychological Reports'', ''88''(2), 353-364.</ref>. There is a vast repository of knowledge and accumulated experience in India on the role of yoga as a way of life in enabling individuals to lead successful and satisfied lives (see for example Becker, 2000<ref name=":3">Becker, I. (2000). Uses of yoga in psychiatry and medicine. ''Complementary and alternative medicine and psychiatry'', ''19'', 107-145.</ref>; Srinivas, 1994<ref>Srinivas, K. M. (1994). Organization development: Maya moksha. ''Work Motivation Models for Developing Country. New Delhi: Sage Publications''.</ref>). More specifically, the Bhagavad Gita, which explicates on yoga, sees that yoga begets high efficiency in work<ref>Ranganathananda, S. (2000). Universal message of the Bhagavad Gita.</ref> opening up possibilities of connections with managerial performance.  

One of the important preoccupations of top management is the improvement of managerial performance<ref name=":1">Adhia, H., Nagendra, H. R., & Mahadevan, B. (2010). Impact of adoption of yoga way of life on the emotional intelligence of managers. ''IIMB Management Review'', ''22''(1-2), 32-41.</ref>. Over the last several decades management researchers have developed constructs to identify the factors that influence managerial performance, and have sought to provide a framework to explain performance. In this context, there is a popular perception that individuals of seemingly average intelligence often do well in their professional and personal lives, whereas people with high IQ often struggle with life’s challenges. Therefore, it would be useful to question the assumption that general intelligence is a sufficiently good predictor of success in life. Earlier researchers have suggested that other attributes may be better determinants<ref>Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.</ref><ref>Sternberg, R. J. (1993). Intelligence is more than IQ: The practical side of intelligence. ''Journal of Cooperative Education'', ''28''(2), 6-17.</ref><ref>Sternberg, R. J. (1996). IQ counts, but what really counts is successful intelligence. ''NASSP Bulletin'', ''80''(583), 18-23.</ref><ref>Tapia, M. (2001). Measuring emotional intelligence. ''Psychological Reports'', ''88''(2), 353-364.</ref>. There is a vast repository of knowledge and accumulated experience in India on the role of yoga as a way of life in enabling individuals to lead successful and satisfied lives (see for example Becker, 2000<ref name=":3">Becker, I. (2000). Uses of yoga in psychiatry and medicine. ''Complementary and alternative medicine and psychiatry'', ''19'', 107-145.</ref>; Srinivas, 1994<ref name=":4">Srinivas, K. M. (1994). Organization development: Maya moksha. ''Work Motivation Models for Developing Country. New Delhi: Sage Publications''.</ref>). More specifically, the Bhagavad Gita, which explicates on yoga, sees that yoga begets high efficiency in work<ref name=":5">Ranganathananda, S. (2000). Universal message of the Bhagavad Gita.</ref> opening up possibilities of connections with managerial performance.  

This article utilizes the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) defined by earlier researchers to measure managerial performance, and explores the yoga way of life as a potential tool to influence the EI of individuals<ref name=":1" />.

This article utilizes the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) defined by earlier researchers to measure managerial performance, and explores the yoga way of life as a potential tool to influence the EI of individuals<ref name=":1" />.

Emotional intelligence (EI) is ‘a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate between them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action’<ref>Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. ''Imagination, cognition and personality'', ''9''(3), 185-211,  Page 5. </ref>.  Goleman (2000)<ref name=":0">Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that gets results. ''Harvard business review'', ''78''(2), 4-17.</ref> identifies five components of EI self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skill. In a later work<ref>Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional  intelligence? In P. Salovey, & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications New York: Basic Books. Page 5. </ref> Mayer and Salovey defined EI as the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth. Their definition of EI refers to the underlying intelligence factors that they feel are necessary in order to develop emotional competence (EC) skills. While the definition of EI is useful for making a distinction between general intelligence and emotional intelligence, the concept of EC is relevant if we have to talk about using EI for organisational success. The EC framework identifies two main categories: '''personal competence''' and '''social competence.''' A comparison of the dimensions considered by Goleman (1998)<ref name=":2">Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.</ref> and the framework offered by the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence<ref>Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations. (2004). Emotional competence framework. www.eiconsortium.org/research/emotional_competence_framework.htm</ref> (2004) reveals many similarities, and Goleman’s influence on the latter is evident. An analysis of these definitions and characteristics of EI leads us to conclude that EI is different from traditional views of intelligence based on cognitive factors suggesting a different kind of aptitude that is founded entirely on noncognitive aspects of behaviour<ref name=":0" />. Goleman’s research, conducted in 200 large, global companies reveals that -  EI especially at the highest levels of a company is the sine qua non for leadership<ref name=":0" />.   

Emotional intelligence (EI) is ‘a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate between them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action’<ref>Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. ''Imagination, cognition and personality'', ''9''(3), 185-211,  Page 5. </ref>.  Goleman (2000)<ref name=":0">Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that gets results. ''Harvard business review'', ''78''(2), 4-17.</ref> identifies five components of EI self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skill. In a later work<ref>Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional  intelligence? In P. Salovey, & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications New York: Basic Books. Page 5. </ref> Mayer and Salovey defined EI as the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth. Their definition of EI refers to the underlying intelligence factors that they feel are necessary in order to develop emotional competence (EC) skills. While the definition of EI is useful for making a distinction between general intelligence and emotional intelligence, the concept of EC is relevant if we have to talk about using EI for organisational success. The EC framework identifies two main categories: '''personal competence''' and '''social competence.''' A comparison of the dimensions considered by Goleman (1998)<ref name=":2">Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.</ref> and the framework offered by the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence<ref>Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations. (2004). Emotional competence framework. www.eiconsortium.org/research/emotional_competence_framework.htm</ref> (2004) reveals many similarities, and Goleman’s influence on the latter is evident. An analysis of these definitions and characteristics of EI leads us to conclude that EI is different from traditional views of intelligence based on cognitive factors suggesting a different kind of aptitude that is founded entirely on noncognitive aspects of behaviour<ref name=":0" />. Goleman’s research, conducted in 200 large, global companies reveals that -  EI especially at the highest levels of a company is the sine qua non for leadership<ref name=":0" />.   

A person can have first class training, an incisive mind, and a large supply of good ideas, but without EI it is unlikely that s/he will make a great leader. Goleman (1998)<ref name=":2" /> reports that emotional quotient (EQ) is twice as important as technical skills and intelligence quotient (IQ) for success in jobs at all levels, more so at the highest level in a company. Goleman suggests that the difference between star performers and average ones in senior leadership positions can be attributed more to EQ factors than to cognitive abilities. Emotional quotient has a champion in none other than Mahatma Gandhi who opined, ‘I know that ultimately one is guided not by the intellect, but by the heart. The heart accepts a conclusion for which the intellect subsequently finds reasoning. Man often finds reason in support of whatever he wants to do.<ref>Chakraborty, S. K., & Chakraborty, D. (2008). Spirituality in management - Means or end? Oxford University Press. Page 41</ref>   

A person can have first class training, an incisive mind, and a large supply of good ideas, but without EI it is unlikely that s/he will make a great leader. Goleman (1998)<ref name=":2" /> reports that emotional quotient (EQ) is twice as important as technical skills and intelligence quotient (IQ) for success in jobs at all levels, more so at the highest level in a company. Goleman suggests that the difference between star performers and average ones in senior leadership positions can be attributed more to EQ factors than to cognitive abilities. Emotional quotient has a champion in none other than Mahatma Gandhi who opined, ‘I know that ultimately one is guided not by the intellect, but by the heart. The heart accepts a conclusion for which the intellect subsequently finds reasoning. Man often finds reason in support of whatever he wants to do.<ref name=":6">Chakraborty, S. K., & Chakraborty, D. (2008). Spirituality in management - Means or end? Oxford University Press. Page 41</ref>   

Researchers have long debated whether leaders are born or made. One can see a similar debate about EI. Are people born with certain levels of empathy, or do they acquire empathy as a result of life’s experiences? It appears that the answer is ‘both’. Scientific inquiry strongly suggests that there is a genetic component to EI, and psychological and developmental research indicate that nurture plays a role as well<ref name=":1" />.   

Researchers have long debated whether leaders are born or made. One can see a similar debate about EI. Are people born with certain levels of empathy, or do they acquire empathy as a result of life’s experiences? It appears that the answer is ‘both’. Scientific inquiry strongly suggests that there is a genetic component to EI, and psychological and developmental research indicate that nurture plays a role as well<ref name=":1" />.   

Yoga is one of the six foundations of Indian philosophy and has been used for millennia to study, explain, and experience the complexities of the mind and human existence<ref>Feuerstein, G. (1998). The yoga tradition: Its history, literature, philosophy, and practice. Prescott, AZ, New York: Hohm Press Foundations, Harper and Row.</ref>. Patanjali, an ancient yoga sage, in his Yoga Sutras, defined yoga as a technique used to still the mental fluctuations of the mind to reach the central reality of the true self<ref>Iyengar, B. K. S. (1966). Light on yoga. New York: Schocken Books.</ref>. Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras outline a skilful way of conducting life that fosters moderation and harmony<ref name=":3" />. These guidelines, which include ethical and moral standards of living in addition to postural and breathing exercises, can be used to foster spiritual growth and evolve one’s consciousness<ref name=":1" />.  

Yoga is one of the six foundations of Indian philosophy and has been used for millennia to study, explain, and experience the complexities of the mind and human existence<ref>Feuerstein, G. (1998). The yoga tradition: Its history, literature, philosophy, and practice. Prescott, AZ, New York: Hohm Press Foundations, Harper and Row.</ref>. Patanjali, an ancient yoga sage, in his Yoga Sutras, defined yoga as a technique used to still the mental fluctuations of the mind to reach the central reality of the true self<ref>Iyengar, B. K. S. (1966). Light on yoga. New York: Schocken Books.</ref>. Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras outline a skilful way of conducting life that fosters moderation and harmony<ref name=":3" />. These guidelines, which include ethical and moral standards of living in addition to postural and breathing exercises, can be used to foster spiritual growth and evolve one’s consciousness<ref name=":1" />.  

The yoga way of life encompasses the philosophy of

The yoga way of life encompasses the philosophy of Karma yoga (path of detached action), Jnana yoga (knowledge of self), Bhakti yoga (trust in the supreme order), and Raja yoga (a prescribed set of eight steps also known as Ashtanga yoga)<ref name=":1" />.

Karma yoga (path of detached action), Jnana yoga

Karma yoga is the path of focusing on the action on hand without selfishness, ego and carelessness as prescribed by Lord Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita<ref name=":5" />.

(knowledge of self), Bhakti yoga (trust in the supreme

Jnana yoga is the path of knowledge of self (atman) propagated by Adi Shankaracharya through an interpretation of the Upanishads, considered the most ancient books of Indian wisdom<ref name=":1" />.

order), and Raja yoga (a prescribed set of eight steps also

Bhakti yoga is the path of total surrender to the supreme power which is based on deep rooted faith in God’s justice system.

known as Ashtanga yoga). Karma yoga is the path of

Raja yoga is the path of control of mind though the practice of Ashtanga yoga or the eight fold path given by the sage Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras<ref name=":7">Swami Satyananda Saraswati. (1976). Four chapters on freedom:Commentary on yoga sutras of Patanjali. Munger, Bihar: Yoga Publications Trust.</ref>. The eight steps of Ashtanga yoga are yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi (see<ref name=":7" />).

focusing on the action on hand without selfishness, ego and

Based on a review of the literature, we<ref name=":1" /> hypothesize that  practising the yoga way of life may bring about a complete transformation of one’s personality, on the physical, mental, emotional and spiritual levels.

carelessness as prescribed by Lord Krishna in the Bhagavad

Yoga psychology conceives of the self in terms of different levels of being. The inner-most core (atman) is covered by five layers. These layers correspond to a step-wise ladder, leading inward to the atman. The journey inward forms the basis of growth and development - the biological evolution from protozoan to man, the psychological evolution from child to adult, and the enhancement of consciousness from cognitive to universal consciousness, wherein there is no ego, and there is the realisation that the concerns and needs of all people are the same, that what is good for one is good for all. In this growth process, feelings and emotions are accepted as having a place in the general scheme; they are not considered wrong or repressed but are transformed and redirected.<ref name=":4" />

Chakraborty and Chakraborty (2008)<ref name=":6" /> see the human personality as a composite of four subtle variables: reason, will, emotion and conscience. In order to integrate the personality, these four factors must be habituated to work in harmony instead of working at cross purposes, and this requires effort. Further, the expression ‘integrated personality’ is often employed to imply the same characteristics that are expected of a holistic, self-possessed Personality.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chakraborty and Chakraborty (2008) see the human

 

personality as a composite of four subtle variables: reason,

 

will, emotion and conscience. In order to integrate the

 

personality, these four factors must be habituated to work

 

in harmony instead of working at cross purposes, and this

 

requires effort. Further, the expression ‘integrated

 

personality’ is often employed to imply the same characteristics

 

that are expected of a holistic, self-possessed

 

Personality.

==References==

==References==

[[Category:Education Series]]

[[Category:Education Series]]

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