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== Meteors and Comets ==
== Meteors and Comets ==
Ulka (meteors) and Dhumaketu (comets) have been mentioned in the Atharvaveda. (19.9.8-9, 19.9.10)<ref name=":6" />
Ulka (meteors) and Dhumaketu (comets) have been mentioned in the Atharvaveda. (19.9.8-9, 19.9.10)<ref name=":6" />
== Nakshatras - An Introduction<ref name=":9">Subhash Kak (2000), [http://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/ast.pdf Astonomy and its Role in Vedic Culture], Chapter 23 in Science and Civilization in India, Vol.1, The Dawn of Indian Civilization, Part 1, edited by G. P. Pande, Delhi: ICPR/Munshiram Manoharlal, pp. 507-524.</ref> ==
The Rgveda describes the universe to be in�finite. Of the �five planets it mentions Brhaspati (Jupiter) and Vena (Venus) by name 16. The moon's path was divided into 27 equal parts, although the moon takes about 27 1/3 days to complete it. Each of these parts was called a nakshatra. Speci�fic stars or asterisms were also termed nakshatras. Satapatha Brahmana relates a story 17 about the nakshatras being as powerful as the sun in earlier times but that they have lost this power to the sun. In view of this the etymology na + kshatra, `no power,' is proposed. A favored modern etymology is nak-kshatra, `ruler over night.' One ancient name of astronomer is nakshatra-darsha.
Nakshatras are mentioned in the Rgveda and Taittiriya Samhita speci�fically mentions that they are linked to the moon's path. The Rgvedic reference to 34 lights apparently means the sun, the moon, the fi�ve planets, and the 27 nakshatras. In later literature the list of nakshatras was increased to 28. Constellations other than the nakshatras were also known; these include the Rkshas (the Bears), the two divine Dogs (Canis Major and Canis Minor), and the Boat (Argo Navis). Aitreya Br�ahman.a speaks of Mr. ga (Orion) and Mr.gavy�adha (Sirius). The moon is called s�urya ra�smi, one that shines by sunlight.
�Satapatha Br�ahmana provides an overview of the broad aspects of Vedic astronomy. The sixth chapter (k�an.d.a) of the book provides signi�ficant clues. Speaking of creation under the aegis of the Praj�apati (reference either to a star or to abstract time) mention is made of the emergence of A�sva, R�asabha, Aja and K�urma before the emergence of the earth. It has been argued that these refer to stars or constellations. Vi�svana�tha Vidya�lan_ka�ra 18 suggests that these should be identi�fied as the sun (A�sva), Gemini (R�asabha), Aja (Capricorn) and K�urma (Cassiopeia). This identi�cation is supported by etymological considerations. RV 1.164.2 and Nirukta 4.4.27 de�ne A�sva as the sun. R�asabha which literally means the twin asses are de�ned in Nighant.u 1.15 as A�svinau which later usage suggests are Castor and Pollux in Gemini. In Western astronomy the twin asses are to be found in the next constellation of Cancer as Asellus Borealis and Asellus Australis. Aja (goat) is de�ned by Nighant.u 1.15 as a sun and owing to the continuity that we see in the Vedic and later European names for constellations (as in the case of the Great Bear) it is reasonable to identify it as the constellation Capricorn (caper goat + cornu horn). K�urma is a synonym of Ka�syapa (tortoise) which is linguistically close to Cassiopeia (from Greek Kassiopeia). Etymologically K�a�syap��ya, slow like a tortoise, seems appropriate for Cassiopeia (from Greek Kassiopeia) since it is near the pole. This last name may point to an epoch when this constellation was even closer to the north pole.
Vedic ritual was based on the times for the full and the new moons, solstices and the equinoxes. The year was known to be somewhat more than 365 days and a bit less than 366 days. The solar year was marked variously in the many di�erent astronomical traditions that marked the Vedic world. In one tradition, an extra eleven days, marked by ek�ada�sar�atra or elevenday sacri�ce, were added to the lunar year of 354 days. According to the Taittir��ya Sam. hit�a �five more days are required over the nominal year of 360 days to complete the seasons, adding that four days are too short and six days are too long. In other traditions, Gav�amayana, `the walk of cows or intercalary periods,' varied from 36 days of the lunar sidereal year of 12 months of 27 days, to 9 days for the lunar sidereal year of 13 months of 27 days to bring the year in line with the ideal year of 360 days; additional days were required to be in accord with the solar year.
The year was divided into two halves: uttar�ayana, when the sun travels north, and daks.in. �ayana, when the sun travels south. According to Kaus.��taki Br�ahman a, the year-long sacri�ces began with the winter solstice, noting the occurrence of the summer solstice, vis.uvant, after six months.
The twelve tropical months, and the six seasons, are named in the Yajurveda:
Madhu, M�adhava in vasanta (spring);
�Sukra, �Suci in gr��s.ma (summer);
Nabha, Nabhasya in vars.�a (rains);
Is.a, �Urja in �sarada (autumn);
Saha, Sahasya in hemanta (winter);
Tapa, Tapasya in �si�sira (freeze).
The n�aks.atra names of the months began with Caitra in spring, although some lists begin with Ph�alguna. Since the months shift with respect to the twelve naks.atra about 2,000 years per naks.atra, this change in the lists indicates a corresponding long period. The lists that begin with Caitra mark the months thus:
Caitra, Vai�s�akha,
Jyais.t.
ha, �As.�ad. ha,
�Sr�avan. a, Bh�adrapada,
�A�svina, K�arttika,
M�arga�sira, Paus.
ya,
M�agha, Ph�alguna.
The earliest lists of naks.atras in the Vedic books begin with Kr. ttik�as, the Pleiades; much later lists dating from sixth century C.E. begin with A�svin�� when the vernal equinox occurred on the border of Revat�� and A�svin��. Assuming that the beginning of the list marked the same astronomical event, as is supported by other evidence, the earliest lists should belong to the third millennium B.C.E. Taittir��ya Sam. hit�a 4.4.10 and �Satapatha Br�ahman.a 10.5.4.5 each mention 27 naks.atras. But there was also a tradition of the use of 28 naks.atras. The Atharvaveda 19.7 lists these 28 together with their presiding deities; the additional naks.atra is Abhijit. The lists begins with Kr.ttik�a (Pleiades) where the spring equinox was situated at that time.19
The following is a list of the naks.atras and their locations:
1. Kr.ttik�a, from the root kr. t, `to cut.' These are the Pleiades. �Satapatha Br�ahman.a says that the Kr.ttik�as do not swerve from the east; this indicates early third millennium B.C.E.
2. Rohin.��, `ruddy,' is � Tauri, Aldebaran. The legend of Praj�apati, Orion, considered the personi�cation of the year, pursuing his daughter, Rohin.��, refers to the age when the beginning of the year shifted from Orion to Rohin.��. In this legend Praj�apati's head was cut o� by Mr.gavy�adha, Sirius. In another version of this legend �Siva cuts o� the head of Daksa Praj�apati. Such a shifting of the year occurred in the �fth millennium B.C.E. Atharvaveda 13.1.22 recalls the period when the sun rose in Rohin.��.
3. Mr.ga�s��rs.a, `Orion's head.' Since the head of Orion was cut o�, this is the region of the stars �; �1; �2 Orionis. Another name of this naks.atra is �Agrah�ayana, `the beginning of the year,' which is a cognate of the word Orion. The vernal equinox lay in Orion around 4500 B.C.E.
4. �Ardr�a, `moist,' is the brilliant star Betelgeuse, � Orionis.
5. Punarvas�u, `the two that give wealth again,' are the stars Castor and Pollux, or � and � Geminorum.
6. Tis.ya, `pleased,' or Pus.ya, owered,' refers to the age when these stars, �; �; ; � Cancri, formed the background to the sun during the summer solstice.
7. �A�sres.�a or �A�sles.�a, `embracer,' represents �; �; � Hydrae.
8. Magh�a, `the bounties,' is the group of stars near Regulus, namely ; �; ; �; �; � Leonis.
9. P�urv�a Ph�algun��, `bright,' � and � Leonis.
10. Uttar�a Ph�algun��, `bright,' � and 93 Leonis. Since Maghavan and Phalgun are names of Indra, clearly a shifting of the summer solstice due to precession is indicated.
11. Hasta, `hand.' The stars �; ; �; �; � in Corvus.
12. Citr�a, `bright.' This is Spica or � Virginis.
13. Sv�at��, `self-bound,' or Nis.t.y�a, is the Arctutus or � Bootis. The name appears to refer to its nearness to the Saptars.i, Ursa Major.
14. Vi�s�akh�a, `without branches.' The stars �; �; � Librae. The name refers to the way the ecliptic separates � and �, with the three stars looking like a bow. In Atharvaveda we encounter the expression radho vi�s�akhe, Vi�sakh�a are prosperity.
15. Anur�adh�a, `propitious,' `what follows R�adh�a.' These are the �; �; � Scorpii.
16. Rohin.��, `ruddy', or Jyes.t.h�a, `eldest.' This is Antares, � Scorpii.
17. Vicr.tau, `the two releasers,' or M�ula, `root.' These are the stars from � to �; � Scorpii.
18. P�urv�a �As.�ad. h�a, `unconquered,' �; � Sagittarii.
19. Uttar�a �As.�ad. h�a, `unconquered,' �; � Sagittarii.
20. Abhijit, `reaching victory.' The name refers to a satisfactory completion of the system of naks.atras. The star is Vega, the brilliant � Lyrae. This is the star that does not occur in the lists which have only 27 naks.atras on it.
21. �Sron.�a, `lame,' or �Sravan. a, `ear.' This represents Altair, � Aquillae, with � below it and above it.
22. �Sravis.t.h�a, `most famous.' It is the diamond-shaped group �; �; �; Delphini. It was later called Dhanis.t.h�a, `most wealthy.' Perhaps the diamond shape gave the name. Ved�a _ nga Jyotis.a says that the winter solstice was in the beginning of �Sravis.t.h�a, which indicates a period of around 1350 B.C.E.
23. �Satabhis.aj, `having a hundred physicians' is � Aquarii and the stars around it.
24. Pros.t.hapad�a, `feet of stool,' are the �; � Pegasi.
25. Uttare Pros.t.hapad�a, `feet of stool,' and later Bhadrapad�a, `auspicious feet.' These are Pegasi and � Andromedae. The name of this and the preceding constellation is suggested by the large square made by these four stars.
26. Revat��, `wealthy,' �; � Piscium.
27. A�svayujau, `the two horse-harnessers,' are the stars � and � Arietis. A�svin�� is a later name. The name refers to the time when these stars rose just before the sun during vernal equinox.
28. Apabharan.��, `the bearers,' are the 35, 39, 41 Arietis.
Abhijit, the twentieth in the above list, does not occur in the list of the 27 in Taittir��ya Sam. hit�a or in Ved�a _ nga Jyotis.a. Maitr�ayan.�� and K�at.haka Sam. hit�as and Atharvaveda contain lists with the 28 naks.atras.
When the asterisms Kr.ttik�a and Vi�s�akh�a de�ned the spring and the autumn equinoxes, the asterisms Magh�a and �Sravis.t.h�a de�ned the summer and the winter solstices.
It has been suggested that because the original list of 27 naks.atras contains only 24 distinct names, these represent the 24 half months of the year. Later, as astronomy developed further, the naks.atra list was expanded to describe the motions of the moon.<ref name=":9" />
== References ==
== References ==
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