Changes

{{ToBeEdited}}Vaidika Kala Mapana (Samskrit: वैदिककालमापनम्) refers to the various divisions of time discussed in Vedic literature.

Vaidika Kala Mapana (Samskrit: वैदिककालमापनम्) refers to the various divisions of [[Kala (कालः)|time]] discussed in [[Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)|Vedic literature]].

 

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

People of the vedic times engaged seriously in the performance of yajnas at specific times prescribed by the shastras. Thus, it was necessary to have accurate knowledge of the science of time so that the times prescribed for performing the various vedic yajnas could be correctly predicted well in advance. Thus, it was essential to study the natural divisions of time caused by the motion of the Sun and Moon, such as days, months, seasons, and years, with special attention to the study of the times of occurrence of new moons, full moons, equinoxes, and solstices that is included under the purview of the science of Astronomy. Therefore, Astronomy in the vedic times, was essentially the science of time-determination that was motivated by the need to fix time for the various yajnas that were performed at different times in different seasons.<ref name=":1">Kolachana, Aditya & Mahesh, Kaluva & Ramasubramanian, K.. (2019). Main characteristics and achievements of ancient Indian astronomy in historical perspective. 10.1007/978-981-13-7326-8_24. </ref>

People of the vedic times engaged seriously in the performance of [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajnas]] at specific times prescribed by the shastras. Thus, it was necessary to have accurate knowledge of the science of time so that the times prescribed for performing the various vedic yajnas could be correctly predicted well in advance. Thus, it was essential to study the natural divisions of time caused by the motion of the [[Surya (सूर्यः)|Sun]] and Moon, such as days, months, seasons, and years, with special attention to the study of the times of occurrence of new moons, full moons, equinoxes, and solstices that is included under the purview of the science of Astronomy. Therefore, Astronomy in the vedic times, was essentially the science of time-determination that was motivated by the need to fix time for the various yajnas that were performed at different times in different seasons.<ref name=":1">Kolachana, Aditya & Mahesh, Kaluva & Ramasubramanian, K.. (2019). Main characteristics and achievements of ancient Indian astronomy in historical perspective. 10.1007/978-981-13-7326-8_24. </ref>

In fact, this is the definition of astronomy given in Vedanga Jyotisha, the earliest available work dealing exclusively with astronomy that gives all necessary information needed by the vedic hota to predict times for the vedic yajnas and other observances.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">K. S. Shukla, [https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol04_1And2_11_KSShukla.pdf Astronomy in ancient and medieval India], Indian Journal of History of Science, Vol.4, Nos. 1-2 (1969), pp.99-106.</ref>

In fact, this is the definition of astronomy given in [[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Vedanga Jyotisha]], the earliest available work dealing exclusively with astronomy that gives all necessary information needed by the vedic hota to predict times for the vedic yajnas and other observances.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">K. S. Shukla, [https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol04_1And2_11_KSShukla.pdf Astronomy in ancient and medieval India], Indian Journal of History of Science, Vol.4, Nos. 1-2 (1969), pp.99-106.</ref>

However, the Vedic literature also has references to astronomical events and observations. For eg. The Kaushitaki brahmana states that the year ended with the full moon at the Purva Phalguni.<ref name=":2" /> <blockquote>मुखम् वा एतत् संवत्सरस्य यत् फाल्गुनी पौर्णमासी । मुखम् उत्तरे फल्गू । पुच्छम् पूर्वे । तद् यथा प्रवृत्तस्य अन्तौ समेतौ स्याताम् । एवम् एव एतौ संवत्सरस्य अन्तौ समेतौ ।5.1<ref>Kaushitaki brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AB Adhyaya 5].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''mukham vā etat saṁvatsarasya yat phālgunī paurṇamāsī । mukham uttare phalgū । puccham pūrve । tad yathā pravr̥ttasya antau sametau syātām । evam eva etau saṁvatsarasya antau sametau ।5.1''</blockquote>Thus, ancient Indian astronomy may be classified into two main categories:

However, the Vedic literature also has references to astronomical events and observations. For eg. The Kaushitaki brahmana states that the year ended with the full moon at the Purva Phalguni.<ref name=":2" /> <blockquote>मुखम् वा एतत् संवत्सरस्य यत् फाल्गुनी पौर्णमासी । मुखम् उत्तरे फल्गू । पुच्छम् पूर्वे । तद् यथा प्रवृत्तस्य अन्तौ समेतौ स्याताम् । एवम् एव एतौ संवत्सरस्य अन्तौ समेतौ ।5.1<ref>Kaushitaki brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AB Adhyaya 5].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''mukham vā etat saṁvatsarasya yat phālgunī paurṇamāsī । mukham uttare phalgū । puccham pūrve । tad yathā pravr̥ttasya antau sametau syātām । evam eva etau saṁvatsarasya antau sametau ।5.1''</blockquote>Thus, ancient Indian astronomy may be classified into two main categories:

# Vedic astronomy  

# Vedic astronomy  

# Post-vedic astronomy.  

# Post-vedic astronomy.  

Vedic astronomy is the astronomy of the vedic period, i.e., the astronomy found in the vedic samhitas, brahmanas and allied literature.<ref name=":1" /> And that is elaborated in this article below.

Vedic astronomy is the astronomy of the vedic period, i.e., the astronomy found in the vedic [[Samhita (संहिता)|samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|brahmanas]] and allied literature.<ref name=":1" /> And that is elaborated in this article below.

== Day in Vedic Literature ==

== Day in Vedic Literature ==

== Months in Vedic Literature ==

== Months in Vedic Literature ==

In vedic astronomy, months were lunar or synodic and were measured from full moon to full moon and also from new moon to new moon<ref name=":2" /> as mentioned in the Taittiriya samhita (7.5.6.1)<ref name=":1" /><ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB Prapathaka 5].</ref> Originally, these months were named as Chaitra etc. based on the nakshatras occupied by the Moon at the time of full moon. And these names do not occur in the early samhitas and brahmanas. They are known to occur in Taittiriya samhita, Shankhayana/Kaushitaki, and Tandya brahmanas, Ashvalayana grhyasutra, Archa and Yajusha jyotisha. Some of the occurrences are as follows:

In vedic astronomy, months were lunar or synodic and were measured from full moon to full moon and also from new moon to new moon<ref name=":2" /> as mentioned in the Taittiriya samhita (7.5.6.1)<ref name=":1" /><ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB Prapathaka 5].</ref> Originally, these months were named as Chaitra etc. based on the nakshatras occupied by the Moon at the time of full moon. And these names do not occur in the early samhitas and brahmanas. They are known to occur in Taittiriya samhita, Shankhayana/Kaushitaki, and Tandya brahmanas, Ashvalayana grhyasutra, Archa and Yajusha jyotisha. Some of the occurrences are as follows:<ref name=":1" />

* The terms Phalguni purnamasi, Chitra purnamasi, etc. are found in the Taittiriya samhita (7. 4. 8).<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref>

* The terms Phalguni purnamasi, Chitra purnamasi, etc. are found in the Taittiriya samhita (7. 4. 8).<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref>

* The term Magha is mentioned in Shankhayana/Kaushitaki brahmana (19. 3)

* The term Magha is mentioned in Shankhayana/Kaushitaki brahmana (19. 3)

However, in due course the lunar months were linked with the solar months. Thus, the lunar month (reckoned from one new moon to the next) in which the Sun entered the sign Aries was called Chaitra or Madhu; that in which the Sun entered the sign Taurus was called Vaishakha or Madhava; and so on. And the lunar month in which the Sun did not enter a new sign was treated as an intercalary month.  

However, in due course the lunar months were linked with the solar months. Thus, the lunar month (reckoned from one new moon to the next) in which the Sun entered the sign Aries was called Chaitra or Madhu; that in which the Sun entered the sign Taurus was called Vaishakha or Madhava; and so on. And the lunar month in which the Sun did not enter a new sign was treated as an intercalary month.  

The twelve lunar months constituted a lunar year.

Twelve such lunar months constituted a lunar year.<ref name=":1" />

== Year in Vedic Literature ==

== Year in Vedic Literature ==

In the vedic literature, the year, generally called by the terms sama, vatsara, and hayana, was measured from one winter solstice to the next. However, in due course, it was used in the sense of a sidereal year.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> In fact, the Kaushitaki brahmana (19.3) gives an interesting account of how the year-long yajna commenced at one winter solstice and continued until the next. It says, “On the new moon of Magha, the Sun rests, about to turn northwards. The hotas also rest, about to begin with the introductory Atiratra. Thus, for the first time, the hotas obtain the Sun. On him, they lay hold with the Chaturvimsha rite; that is why the laying hold rite has that name. The Sun then goes north for six months, while the hotas follow him with six day rites in continuation. Having gone north for six months, the Sun stands still, about to turn southwards. The hotas also rest, about to begin with the Vishnuvanta (summer solstice) day. Thus, for the second time, they obtain the Sun. The Sun then goes south for six months and the hotas follow him with six day rites in reverse order. Having gone south for six months, the Sun stands still, being about to turn north and the hotas also rest, about to begin with the Mahavrata day. Thus, they obtain the Sun for the third time."<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">Kaushitaki brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 19].</ref>

In the vedic literature, the year, generally called by the terms sama, vatsara, and hayana, was measured from one winter solstice to the next. However, in due course, it was used in the sense of a sidereal year.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> In fact, the Kaushitaki brahmana (19.3) gives an interesting account of how the year-long yajna commenced at one winter solstice and continued until the next. It says, “On the new moon of Magha, the Sun rests, about to turn northwards. The hotas also rest, about to begin with the introductory Atiratra. Thus, for the first time, the hotas obtain the Sun. On him, they lay hold with the Chaturvimsha rite; that is why the laying hold rite has that name. The Sun then goes north for six months, while the hotas follow him with six day rites in continuation. Having gone north for six months, the Sun stands still, about to turn southwards. The hotas also rest, about to begin with the Vishnuvanta (summer solstice) day. Thus, for the second time, they obtain the Sun. The Sun then goes south for six months and the hotas follow him with six day rites in reverse order. Having gone south for six months, the Sun stands still, being about to turn north and the hotas also rest, about to begin with the Mahavrata day. Thus, they obtain the Sun for the third time."<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">Kaushitaki brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 19].</ref>

In this context, it is worth observing that the Taittiriya brahmana (3. 9. 22) calls the year “the day of the deities” who are supposed to reside at the north pole.<blockquote>एकं वा एतद्देवानामहः  । यत्संवत्सरः  ।<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Prapathaka 9].</ref> ''ekaṁ vā etaddevānāmahaḥ । yatsaṁvatsaraḥ ।''</blockquote>

In this context, it is worth observing that the Taittiriya brahmana (3. 9. 22) calls the year “the day of the deities” who are supposed to reside at the north pole.<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>एकं वा एतद्देवानामहः  । यत्संवत्सरः  ।<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Prapathaka 9].</ref> ''ekaṁ vā etaddevānāmahaḥ । yatsaṁvatsaraḥ ।''</blockquote>

=== Seasons ===

=== Seasons<ref name=":1" /> ===

The year of vedic astronomy seems to have been a seasonal or tropical one. Therefore, in the early stages, the names of the seasons were used as synonyms of a year. The year consisted of six seasons and each season lasted for a duration of two solar months. The two solar months commencing with the winter solstice were called Shishira; the next two months, Vasanta; and so on. According to the Aitareya brahmana (1.1) and Taittiriya brahmana (2.7.10), sometimes Shishira and Hemanta were treated as one season and the number of seasons was taken as five.<blockquote>''द्वा''दश मासाः पञ्चर्तवो हेमन्तशिशिरयोः समासेन तावान्संवत्सरः |<ref>Aitareya brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE) Panchika 1].</ref>''dvādaśa māsāḥ pañcartavō hēmantaśiśirayōḥ samāsēna tāvānsaṁvatsaraḥ |''</blockquote><blockquote>पञ्च वा ऋतवः संवत्सरः । ऋतुष्वेव संवत्सरे प्रतितिष्ठति ।<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 2, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Prapathaka 7].</ref>''pañca vā r̥tavaḥ saṁvatsaraḥ । r̥tuṣvēva saṁvatsarē pratitiṣṭhati ।''</blockquote>The relation between the seasons and months was as follows:

The year of vedic astronomy seems to have been a seasonal or tropical one. Therefore, in the early stages, the names of the seasons were used as synonyms of a year. The year consisted of six seasons and each season lasted for a duration of two solar months. The two solar months commencing with the winter solstice were called Shishira; the next two months, Vasanta; and so on. According to the Aitareya brahmana (1.1) and Taittiriya brahmana (2.7.10), sometimes Shishira and Hemanta were treated as one season and the number of seasons was taken as five.<blockquote>''द्वा''दश मासाः पञ्चर्तवो हेमन्तशिशिरयोः समासेन तावान्संवत्सरः |<ref>Aitareya brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE) Panchika 1].</ref>''dvādaśa māsāḥ pañcartavō hēmantaśiśirayōḥ samāsēna tāvānsaṁvatsaraḥ |''</blockquote><blockquote>पञ्च वा ऋतवः संवत्सरः । ऋतुष्वेव संवत्सरे प्रतितिष्ठति ।<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 2, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Prapathaka 7].</ref>''pañca vā r̥tavaḥ saṁvatsaraḥ । r̥tuṣvēva saṁvatsarē pratitiṣṭhati ।''</blockquote>The relation between the seasons and months was as follows:

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

|+Relation between Vedic seasons and months<ref name=":1" />

|+Relation between Vedic seasons and months

!Seasons

!Seasons

!Months

!Months

Just as there were Lunar months and Solar months, there was also the concept of a Lunar year and a Solar year. And in order to preserve correspondence between lunar and solar years, intercalary months were inserted at regular intervals. It is said that, the mention of the intercalary month is made in the Rgveda (1. 25. 8<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AB Sukta 25].</ref>), but how it was arrived at and where in the scheme of months it was introduced in that time is not known.<ref name=":1" /> Prof K. S. Shukla mentions that there is evidence to show that to make the lunar year correspond to the solar year, 12 days were intercalated after every lunar year and one month was dropped after every 40 years.<ref name=":2" />

Just as there were Lunar months and Solar months, there was also the concept of a Lunar year and a Solar year. And in order to preserve correspondence between lunar and solar years, intercalary months were inserted at regular intervals. It is said that, the mention of the intercalary month is made in the Rgveda (1. 25. 8<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AB Sukta 25].</ref>), but how it was arrived at and where in the scheme of months it was introduced in that time is not known.<ref name=":1" /> Prof K. S. Shukla mentions that there is evidence to show that to make the lunar year correspond to the solar year, 12 days were intercalated after every lunar year and one month was dropped after every 40 years.<ref name=":2" />

The Taittiriya samhita (5. 6. 7<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 5, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AB/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Prapathaka 6]. </ref>) refers to 12 as well as 13 months of a year and calls the thirteenth (intercalary) month by the names Samsarpa and Amhaspati (1. 4. 14).<blockquote>1 मधुश् च माधवश् च शुक्रश् च शुचिश् च नभश् च नभस्यश् चेषश् चोर्जश् च सहश् च सहस्यश् च तपश् च तपस्यश् च । उपयामगृहीतो ऽसि सꣳसर्पो ऽसि । अꣳहस्पत्याय त्वा ॥<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''1 madhuś ca mādhavaś ca śukraś ca śuciś ca nabhaś ca nabhasyaś cēṣaś cōrjaś ca sahaś ca sahasyaś ca tapaś ca tapasyaś ca । upayāmagr̥hītō 'si saꣳsarpō 'si । aꣳhaspatyāya tvā ॥''</blockquote>While the Vajasaneyi samhita (7. 30; 22. 31) calls the intercalary month on one occasion by the name Amhasaspati and on another by the name malimlucha (22. 30). <blockquote>उपयामगृहीतो स्य् अꣳहसस्पतये त्वा ॥7. 30||<ref>Shukla Yajurveda, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Adhyaya 7].</ref> ''upayāmagr̥hītō sy aꣳhasaspatayē tvā ॥7. 30||''</blockquote><blockquote>तपस्याय स्वाहाꣳहसस्पतये स्वाहा ॥22. 31||<ref name=":4">Shukla Yajurveda, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 22].</ref> ''tapasyāya svāhāꣳhasaspatayē svāhā ॥22. 31||''</blockquote><blockquote>मलिम्लुचाय स्वाहा ||22. 30||<ref name=":4" /> ''malimlucāya svāhā ||22. 30||''</blockquote>While, according to later works (Tantrasamgraha), Amhaspati referred to the synodic month with two samkrantis, the synodic month without any Samkranti, occurring before it, is called Samsarpa and the synodic month without any Samkranti occurring after it is called Adhimasa (intercalary month).  

The Taittiriya samhita (5. 6. 7<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 5, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AB/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Prapathaka 6]. </ref>) refers to 12 as well as 13 months of a year and calls the thirteenth (intercalary) month by the names Samsarpa and Amhaspati (1. 4. 14).<blockquote>1 मधुश् च माधवश् च शुक्रश् च शुचिश् च नभश् च नभस्यश् चेषश् चोर्जश् च सहश् च सहस्यश् च तपश् च तपस्यश् च । उपयामगृहीतो ऽसि सꣳसर्पो ऽसि । अꣳहस्पत्याय त्वा ॥<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''1 madhuś ca mādhavaś ca śukraś ca śuciś ca nabhaś ca nabhasyaś cēṣaś cōrjaś ca sahaś ca sahasyaś ca tapaś ca tapasyaś ca । upayāmagr̥hītō 'si saꣳsarpō 'si । aꣳhaspatyāya tvā ॥''</blockquote>While the Vajasaneyi samhita (7. 30; 22. 31) calls the intercalary month on one occasion by the name Amhasaspati and on another by the name malimlucha (22. 30). <blockquote>उपयामगृहीतो स्य् अꣳहसस्पतये त्वा ॥7. 30||<ref>Shukla Yajurveda, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Adhyaya 7].</ref> ''upayāmagr̥hītō sy aꣳhasaspatayē tvā ॥7. 30||''</blockquote><blockquote>तपस्याय स्वाहाꣳहसस्पतये स्वाहा ॥22. 31||<ref name=":4">Shukla Yajurveda, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 22].</ref> ''tapasyāya svāhāꣳhasaspatayē svāhā ॥22. 31||''</blockquote><blockquote>मलिम्लुचाय स्वाहा ||22. 30||<ref name=":4" /> ''malimlucāya svāhā ||22. 30||''</blockquote>While, according to later works (Tantrasamgraha), Amhaspati referred to the synodic month with two samkrantis, the synodic month without any Samkranti, occurring before it, is called Samsarpa and the synodic month without any Samkranti occurring after it is called Adhimasa (intercalary month).<ref name=":1" />

By the time of the Vedanga jyotisha, insertion of an intercalary month after every 30 lunar months was prescribed (Yajusha jyotisha 37). Thus, a year sometimes contained 12 lunar months and sometimes 13 lunar months. Then, at a later stage the correspondence between the lunar and  solar year was established by evolving a cycle of five solar years with 62 lunar months. And this cycle was called a yuga.<ref name=":2" />  

Thus, a year sometimes contained 12 lunar months and sometimes 13 lunar months. By the time of the Vedanga jyotisha, insertion of an intercalary month after every 30 lunar months was prescribed (Yajusha jyotisha 37). Then, at a later stage the correspondence between the lunar and  solar year was established by evolving a cycle of five solar years with 62 lunar months. And this cycle was called a yuga.<ref name=":2" />  

== Yuga in Vedic Literature ==

== Yuga in Vedic Literature<ref name=":1" /> ==

Periods bigger than a year are also met with in the vedic literature. They were called yuga. One such yuga consisted of 5 solar years. The five constituent years of this yuga were called Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idavatsara, Anuvatsara and Idvatsara.

Periods bigger than a year are also met with in the vedic literature. They were called yuga. One such yuga consisted of 5 solar years. The five constituent years of this yuga were called Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idavatsara, Anuvatsara and Idvatsara.

Two of these names viz. Samvatsara and Parivatsara find mention in the Rgveda (7. 103. 7–8),<blockquote>ब्राह्मणासो अतिरात्रे न सोमे सरो न पूर्णमभितो वदन्तः । संवत्सरस्य तदहः परि ष्ठ यन्मण्डूकाः प्रावृषीणं बभूव ॥७॥</blockquote><blockquote>ब्राह्मणासः सोमिनो वाचमक्रत ब्रह्म कृण्वन्तः परिवत्सरीणम् । अध्वर्यवो घर्मिणः सिष्विदाना आविर्भवन्ति गुह्या न के चित् ॥८॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Sukta 103].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''brāhmaṇāsō atirātrē na sōmē sarō na pūrṇamabhitō vadantaḥ । saṁvatsarasya tadahaḥ pari ṣṭha yanmaṇḍūkāḥ prāvr̥ṣīṇaṁ babhūva ॥7॥''</blockquote><blockquote>''brāhmaṇāsaḥ sōminō vācamakrata brahma kr̥ṇvantaḥ parivatsarīṇam । adhvaryavō gharmiṇaḥ siṣvidānā āvirbhavanti guhyā na kē cit ॥8॥''</blockquote>The Taittirīya-saṃhitā (5. 5. 7. 1–3)<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 5, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AB/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB Prapathaka 5].</ref>, the Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā (27. 45; 30. 16), and the Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa (3. 4. 11; 3. 10. 4), mention all the five names, with some alteration. <blockquote>यम्यै यमसूम् । अथर्वभ्योऽवतोकाम् । संवत्सराय पर्यारिणीम् । परिवत्सरायाविजाताम् । इदावत्सरायापस्कद्वरीम् । इद्वत्सरायातीत्वरीम् । वत्सराय विजर्जराम् । सर्वंत्सराय पलिक्नीम् । वनाय वनपम् । अन्यतोऽरण्याय दावपम् १<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>संवत्सरोऽसि परिवत्सरोऽसि । इदावत्सरोऽसीदुवत्सरोऽसि । इद्वत्सरोऽसि वत्सरोऽसि ।<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>The Taittirīyasaṃhitā calls them saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, iduvatsara, and vatsara; the Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, idvatsara, and vatsara, and the Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, idvatsara, and vatsara respectively.

Two of these names viz. Samvatsara and Parivatsara find mention in the Rgveda (7. 103. 7–8),<blockquote>ब्राह्मणासो अतिरात्रे न सोमे सरो न पूर्णमभितो वदन्तः । संवत्सरस्य तदहः परि ष्ठ यन्मण्डूकाः प्रावृषीणं बभूव ॥७॥</blockquote><blockquote>ब्राह्मणासः सोमिनो वाचमक्रत ब्रह्म कृण्वन्तः परिवत्सरीणम् । अध्वर्यवो घर्मिणः सिष्विदाना आविर्भवन्ति गुह्या न के चित् ॥८॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Sukta 103].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''brāhmaṇāsō atirātrē na sōmē sarō na pūrṇamabhitō vadantaḥ । saṁvatsarasya tadahaḥ pari ṣṭha yanmaṇḍūkāḥ prāvr̥ṣīṇaṁ babhūva ॥7॥''</blockquote><blockquote>''brāhmaṇāsaḥ sōminō vācamakrata brahma kr̥ṇvantaḥ parivatsarīṇam । adhvaryavō gharmiṇaḥ siṣvidānā āvirbhavanti guhyā na kē cit ॥8॥''</blockquote>While the Taittiriya samhita, the Vajasaneyi samhita and the Taittiriya brahmana (3. 4. 11 and 3. 10. 4) mention all the five names, with some alteration.

 

* The Taittiriya samhita (5. 5. 7. 3–4)<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 5, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AB/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB Prapathaka 5].</ref> calls them Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idavatsara, Iduvatsara and Vatsara.

The names Kṛta, Tretā, Dvāpara, and Kali which are used in later astronomy as the names of longer yugas are also used in the vedic literature to indicate different grades, each inferior to the preceding. But Dvāpara, as a unit of time, is found to be used in the Gopatha-brāhmaṇa (1. 1. 28).<blockquote>1.1.28 असमीक्ष्यप्रवल्हितानि श्रूयन्ते द्वापरादाव् ऋषीणाम् एकदेशो दोषपतिर् इह चिन्ताम् आपेदे त्रिभिः सोमः पातव्यः समाप्तम् इव भवति...</blockquote>The five-year yuga of the Vedāṅga-jyautiṣa contained 61 civil, 62 lunar, and 67 sidereal months. The year consisted of 366 civil days which were reckoned from sunrise to sunrise. After every thirty lunar months one intercalary month was inserted to bring about concordance between solar and lunar years. Similarly, to equate the number of tithis and civil days in the yuga of five solar years, the thirty full moon tithis which ended between sunrise and midday were omitted. There were six seasons of equal duration in every year, each new season beginning after every 61 days. Besides tithis and nakshatras, the yoga called Vyatīpāta was also in use.  

* The Vajasaneyi samhita (27. 45 and 30. 15) calls them Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idavatsara, Idvatsara and Vatsara.

 

The five-year yuga was taken to commence at the winter solstice occurring at the beginning of the first tithi of the light half of the month Māgha. Since the Sun and Moon were supposed to occupy the same position at the beginning of each subsequent yuga and all happenings in one yuga were supposed to be repeated in the subsequent yugas in the same way, the calendar constructed on the basis of the Vedāṅga-jyautiṣa was meant to serve for a long time.<ref name=":1" />

* The Taittiriya brahmana (3. 4. 11 and 3. 10. 4) calls them Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idavatsara, Idvatsara and Vatsara.

<blockquote>यम्यै यमसूम् । अथर्वभ्योऽवतोकाम् । संवत्सराय पर्यारिणीम् । परिवत्सरायाविजाताम् । इदावत्सरायापस्कद्वरीम् । इद्वत्सरायातीत्वरीम् । वत्सराय विजर्जराम् । सर्वंत्सराय पलिक्नीम् । वनाय वनपम् । अन्यतोऽरण्याय दावपम् १<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>संवत्सरोऽसि परिवत्सरोऽसि । इदावत्सरोऽसीदुवत्सरोऽसि । इद्वत्सरोऽसि वत्सरोऽसि ।<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>''yamyai yamasūm । atharvabhyō'vatōkām । saṁvatsarāya paryāriṇīm । parivatsarāyāvijātām । idāvatsarāyāpaskadvarīm । idvatsarāyātītvarīm । vatsarāya vijarjarām । sarvaṁtsarāya paliknīm । vanāya vanapam । anyatō'raṇyāya dāvapam 1''</blockquote><blockquote>''saṁvatsarō'si parivatsarō'si । idāvatsarō'sīduvatsarō'si । idvatsarō'si vatsarō'si ।''</blockquote>The names Krta, Treta, Dvapara and Kali which are used in later astronomy as the names of longer yugas are also used in the vedic literature. However they indicated different grades; each inferior to the preceding. But Dvapara, as a unit of time, is found to be used in the Gopatha-brahmana (1. 1. 28). <blockquote>असमीक्ष्यप्रवल्हितानि श्रूयन्ते द्वापरादाव् ऋषीणाम् एकदेशो दोषपतिर् इह चिन्ताम् आपेदे त्रिभिः सोमः पातव्यः समाप्तम् इव भवति...<ref>Gopatha brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Prapathaka 1].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''asamīkṣyapravalhitāni śrūyantē dvāparādāv r̥ṣīṇām ēkadēśō dōṣapatir iha cintām āpēdē tribhiḥ sōmaḥ pātavyaḥ samāptam iva bhavati...''</blockquote>

The date of this work (Vedanga Jyotisha) is controversial, but the situation of the Sun and Moon at the beginning of the yuga of five years mentioned in this work, according to T. S. Kuppanna Sastry, existed about 1150 bc or about 1370 bc, according as the first point of nakṣatra Śraviṣṭhā stated there means the first point of the nakṣatra-segment Śraviṣṭhā or the nakṣatra-group Śraviṣṭhā (Sastry 1984, 3, p. 13).<ref name=":1" />

The Vedic literature does have scattered references to many terms that help in understanding the division of time during the vedic times. However, it is the Vedanga jyotisha, the earliest available work dedicated to the field of Astronomy that mentions in detail about the divisions of time that finally evolved from the vedic period. Some facts of note from the Vedanga jyotisha are as follows:

# The five-year yuga of the Vedanga Jyotisha contained 61 civil, 62 lunar, and 67 sidereal months wherein the year consisted of 366 civil days which were reckoned from sunrise to sunrise. 

It is also to be noted that the five-year yuga was taken to commence at the winter solstice occurring at the beginning of the first tithi of the Shukla paksha of the month Magha. Since the Sun and Moon were supposed to occupy the same position at the beginning of each subsequent yuga and all happenings in one yuga were supposed to be repeated in the subsequent yugas in the same way, the calendar constructed on the basis of the Vedanga Jyotisha was meant to serve for a long time. And this situation of the Sun and Moon at the beginning of the yuga of five years mentioned in this work, according to T. S. Kuppanna Sastry, existed about 1150 bc or about 1370 bc.<ref name=":1" />

== References ==

== References ==

<references />

<references />