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It has been documented that early inhabitants of Bharatakhanda took to farming as their chief occupation supported by the archaeological evidence found in Indus Valley excavations. Discovery of charred rice grains, presence of wheat in the excavations present oldest records of developed agricultural practices.<ref>Ray, P and Sen, S. N. (First Edition 1937) ''The Cultural Heritage of India, Volume 6.'' Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. (Page 176)</ref>

It has been documented that early inhabitants of Bharatakhanda took to farming as their chief occupation supported by the archaeological evidence found in Indus Valley excavations. Discovery of charred rice grains, presence of wheat in the excavations present oldest records of developed agricultural practices.<ref>Ray, P and Sen, S. N. (First Edition 1937) ''The Cultural Heritage of India, Volume 6.'' Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. (Page 176)</ref>

== Introduction ==

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

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The Atharvaveda, describes the life of the ancient agriculturists in India. It is regarded as the most honourable of human activities by all sections of people and practiced irrespective of varnas. Farmer was an authority in the knowledge and production of food and hence respected as "Annadata". Ploughing the land was considered a privilege, and it is well known that Janaka Maharaja of Videha, found the girl child during ploughing of the land for a yajna, and named her Sita (which means furrow made by the plough). Everyone had a piece of land, big or small, which was cultivated to sustain the family in ancient times. The farm is compared to the divine cow fulfilling all the desires of the hard working farmer. Ancient Indian farmers evolved nature friendly farming systems and practices.

The Atharvaveda, describes the life of the ancient agriculturists in India. It is regarded as the most honourable of human activities by all sections of people and practiced irrespective of varnas. Farmer was an authority in the knowledge and production of food and hence respected as "Annadata". Ploughing the land was considered a privilege, and it is well known that Janaka Maharaja of Videha, found the girl child during ploughing of the land for a yajna, and named her Sita (which means furrow made by the plough). Everyone had a piece of land, big or small, which was cultivated to sustain the family in ancient times. The farm is compared to the divine cow fulfilling all the desires of the hard working farmer. Ancient Indian farmers evolved nature friendly farming systems and practices.

According to the Atharvaveda, food is the basic necessity for human beings. But the availability of food depends of agriculture. People well versed in agricultural activities were considered to be highly respectable and successful in their endeavour (8.10.42-43)

According to the Atharvaveda (8.10.42-43), food is the basic necessity for human beings. But the availability of food depends of agriculture. People well versed in agricultural activities were considered to be highly respectable and successful in their endeavour. There are dedicated suktas in Atharvaveda for krishi (3.17 for agriculture), vanaspati (3.18 for medicinal herbs) and pashuposhana (3.28 for livestock), Anna (6.17 and 7.58), Anna samrddhi (6.142) which mention about the significance of agriculture.<ref name=":2" />

 

The Atharvaveda also highlights the importance of agriculture. There are dedicated suktas for krishi (3.17 for agriculture), vanaspati (3.18 for medicinal herbs) and pashuposhana (3.28 for livestock), Anna (6.17 and 7.58), Anna samrddhi (6.142) which mention about the significance of agriculture.

==== Krshi Sukta in Atharaveda ====

==== Krshi Sukta in Atharaveda ====

=== कश्यपीयकृषिपद्धतिः ॥ Kashyapiya-krishi-paddhati ===

=== कश्यपीयकृषिपद्धतिः ॥ Kashyapiya-krishi-paddhati ===

Kashyapiyakrishi paddhati mentions that production of grains and other vegetation are the sole purpose of highest fulfilment of the earth. The rich earth full of vegetation is the cause of growth of living beings-<blockquote>सस्यादिरेव मेदिन्याः परोधर्मः परं यशः। सस्यपूर्णा वसुमती प्राणिनां प्राणवर्धिनी।। (1.18)</blockquote>It further adds that it is the giver of all auspicious things, leading to the satisfaction of devatas especially with its perpetual power to produce grain and fountains of sweet water-<blockquote>सर्वमङ्गलदात्री च देवानां तुष्टिदायिनी। नित्यसस्या च मधुरजलस्रावा विशेषतः।। (1.19)</blockquote>Seers with divine insight eulogize agricultural business as the basis of sacrifice and as life giver of living beings-<blockquote>यज्ञानामपि चाधारः प्राणिनां जीवदायकम्। कृषिकर्म प्रशंसन्ति मुनयो दिव्यचक्षुसः।। (1.235)</blockquote>Men should exert and devote themselves to farming whether they get farmlands from a king or purchase one for themselves-<blockquote>नृपत् प्राप्तं स्वतःक्रीत सस्यक्षेत्रं तु मानवाः। संप्राप्य यत्नवन्तश्च कृषिकार्यकृतादराः ।। (1.236)</blockquote>They are said to please devatas and rshis. Of all wealth, agriculture is the highest wealth-<blockquote>देवानां च मुनीनां च मे मताः प्रीतिदायिनः। घनानामपि सर्वेषां कृषिरेव परं धनम्।। (1.237)</blockquote>As this wealth cannot be taken away by others, it is commended by everyone. Yielding profuse returns, it provides pure grains and other things which please devatas-<blockquote>परैरग्राह्यमादिष्टं सर्वंश्श्लाघ्यं महाफलम्। देवानां प्रीतिजनक शुद्धद्रव्यप्रदायि तत्।।(1.238)</blockquote>Keeping away dependence on others, always yielding wealth, it provides for the guests, deities, and one’s own family-<blockquote>परातन्त्र्यहरं चैव नित्यम लक्ष्मीविलासकृतम्। तथातिथीनां देवानां स्वकुटुम्बस्य जीवदम्।। (1.239)</blockquote>Giving delight in several ways, the profession of farming is indeed praiseworthy. Any other livelihood involves dependence-<blockquote>नानाविधानन्दकरं कृषिकर्म प्रशस्यते। अतस्तदन्या वृत्तिस्तु पारतन्त्र्येण गुम्भिता ।।(1.240)</blockquote>The natural inclination of people towards agriculture pleases devatas and be nurtured with special effort as it sustains life of all living beings-<blockquote>कृषिप्रवृत्तिं सर्वेषां देवानां प्रीतिदायिनीम्। यत्नतो रक्षयेयुस्तां जीवानां जीवनप्रदाम्।। (1.244)</blockquote>Seers are of the opinion that farming activity should be planned and undertaken in every community, in every country, in every rural part, and in every tableland-<blockquote>वने जनपदे देशे क्षेत्रे ग्राम्ये भृगोस्तटे। कृषिप्रवृषत्तिं संकल्प्यां मन्यते हि मुनीश्वराः ।। (1.245)</blockquote>Sages of ancient times have pursued agricultural activities even on open yards of cottages with a view to benefit all beings-<blockquote>पुरातनैस्तु मुनिभिरुटजाङ्गणभूमिषु । कृषिकर्मकृतं लोके सर्वप्राणिहितार्थिभिः।। (1.246)</blockquote>Undertaking in agriculture is to be pursued by all great men of sharp intelligence to get permanent joy-<blockquote>अतः कृष्यादानमेतत् सर्वेः पुरुषपुङ्गवैः। सूक्ष्मधीभिरिहासेव्यं शाश्वतानन्दहेतवे।। (1.248)</blockquote>

Kashyapiyakrishi paddhati mentions that production of grains and other vegetation are the sole purpose of highest fulfilment of the earth. The rich earth full of vegetation is the cause of growth of living beings-<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>सस्यादिरेव मेदिन्याः परोधर्मः परं यशः। सस्यपूर्णा वसुमती प्राणिनां प्राणवर्धिनी।। (1.18)</blockquote>It further adds that it is the giver of all auspicious things, leading to the satisfaction of devatas especially with its perpetual power to produce grain and fountains of sweet water-<blockquote>सर्वमङ्गलदात्री च देवानां तुष्टिदायिनी। नित्यसस्या च मधुरजलस्रावा विशेषतः।। (1.19)</blockquote>Seers with divine insight eulogize agricultural business as the basis of sacrifice and as life giver of living beings-<blockquote>यज्ञानामपि चाधारः प्राणिनां जीवदायकम्। कृषिकर्म प्रशंसन्ति मुनयो दिव्यचक्षुसः।। (1.235)</blockquote>Men should exert and devote themselves to farming whether they get farmlands from a king or purchase one for themselves-<blockquote>नृपत् प्राप्तं स्वतःक्रीत सस्यक्षेत्रं तु मानवाः। संप्राप्य यत्नवन्तश्च कृषिकार्यकृतादराः ।। (1.236)</blockquote>They are said to please devatas and rshis. Of all wealth, agriculture is the highest wealth-<blockquote>देवानां च मुनीनां च मे मताः प्रीतिदायिनः। घनानामपि सर्वेषां कृषिरेव परं धनम्।। (1.237)</blockquote>As this wealth cannot be taken away by others, it is commended by everyone. Yielding profuse returns, it provides pure grains and other things which please devatas-<blockquote>परैरग्राह्यमादिष्टं सर्वंश्श्लाघ्यं महाफलम्। देवानां प्रीतिजनक शुद्धद्रव्यप्रदायि तत्।।(1.238)</blockquote>Keeping away dependence on others, always yielding wealth, it provides for the guests, deities, and one’s own family-<blockquote>परातन्त्र्यहरं चैव नित्यम लक्ष्मीविलासकृतम्। तथातिथीनां देवानां स्वकुटुम्बस्य जीवदम्।। (1.239)</blockquote>Giving delight in several ways, the profession of farming is indeed praiseworthy. Any other livelihood involves dependence-<blockquote>नानाविधानन्दकरं कृषिकर्म प्रशस्यते। अतस्तदन्या वृत्तिस्तु पारतन्त्र्येण गुम्भिता ।।(1.240)</blockquote>The natural inclination of people towards agriculture pleases devatas and be nurtured with special effort as it sustains life of all living beings-<blockquote>कृषिप्रवृत्तिं सर्वेषां देवानां प्रीतिदायिनीम्। यत्नतो रक्षयेयुस्तां जीवानां जीवनप्रदाम्।। (1.244)</blockquote>Seers are of the opinion that farming activity should be planned and undertaken in every community, in every country, in every rural part, and in every tableland-<blockquote>वने जनपदे देशे क्षेत्रे ग्राम्ये भृगोस्तटे। कृषिप्रवृषत्तिं संकल्प्यां मन्यते हि मुनीश्वराः ।। (1.245)</blockquote>Sages of ancient times have pursued agricultural activities even on open yards of cottages with a view to benefit all beings-<blockquote>पुरातनैस्तु मुनिभिरुटजाङ्गणभूमिषु । कृषिकर्मकृतं लोके सर्वप्राणिहितार्थिभिः।। (1.246)</blockquote>Undertaking in agriculture is to be pursued by all great men of sharp intelligence to get permanent joy-<blockquote>अतः कृष्यादानमेतत् सर्वेः पुरुषपुङ्गवैः। सूक्ष्मधीभिरिहासेव्यं शाश्वतानन्दहेतवे।। (1.248)</blockquote>

=== कृषिपराशरः ॥ Krshi Parashara ===

=== कृषिपराशरः ॥ Krshi Parashara ===

Krshiparashara has discussed the importance of agriculture. It says that even a learned Brahmin who is proficient in all the four Vedas, who recites Shastras and is intelligent, when is overpowered by Alakṣmī, is reduced to humiliation caused be begging for food with folded hands. And only through farming, one however ceases to be a suitor. By practicing agriculture alone one is bound to be bhupati (master of the earth). People even having surplus of gold, silver, jewels and garments have to solicit farmers as earnestly as a devotee would pray. People in spite of having gold ornaments in their necks, ears and hands have to suffer from hunger in absence of food. Food is life, food is also the strength, food is everything. The divinities, the demons, and all human beings depend on food for surviving. Food, verily, comes from grains and grains cannot be available without agriculture. Therefore, leaving everything else one should strive for farming. Blessed is agriculture, holy is agriculture, and agriculture is life of all living creatures.

Krshiparashara has discussed the importance of agriculture. It says that even a learned Brahmin who is proficient in all the four Vedas, who recites Shastras and is intelligent, when is overpowered by Alakṣmī, is reduced to humiliation caused be begging for food with folded hands. And only through farming, one however ceases to be a suitor. By practicing agriculture alone one is bound to be bhupati (master of the earth). People even having surplus of gold, silver, jewels and garments have to solicit farmers as earnestly as a devotee would pray. People in spite of having gold ornaments in their necks, ears and hands have to suffer from hunger in absence of food. Food is life, food is also the strength, food is everything. The divinities, the demons, and all human beings depend on food for surviving. Food, verily, comes from grains and grains cannot be available without agriculture. Therefore, leaving everything else one should strive for farming. Blessed is agriculture, holy is agriculture, and agriculture is life of all living creatures (Krishiparasara 2.8)<ref name=":2" />

=== Other References ===

=== Other References ===

Many ancient texts in Bharatavarsha, the land of [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajnas]], advocated that all activities of life are a form of yajna and have to be done with reverence. Origin and evolution of agriculture and irrigation are not separate processes and they are created by Yajnas as evidenced from the following mantras in Shukla Yajurveda.<blockquote>कृषिश् च मे वृष्टिश् च मे... औद्भिद्यं च मे यज्ञेन कल्पन्ताम् ॥ (Yaju. 18.7)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AE Adhyaya 18])</ref></blockquote>These mantras illustrate the importance of Yajnas for rain, agriculture, air, environment, creatures such as snakes and their interrelationship.

Many ancient texts in Bharatavarsha, the land of [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|Yajnas]], advocated that all activities of life are a form of yajna and have to be done with reverence. Origin and evolution of agriculture and irrigation are not separate processes and they are created by Yajnas as evidenced from the following mantras in Shukla Yajurveda.<blockquote>कृषिश् च मे वृष्टिश् च मे... औद्भिद्यं च मे यज्ञेन कल्पन्ताम् ॥ (Yaju. 18.7)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AE Adhyaya 18])</ref></blockquote>These mantras illustrate the importance of Yajnas for rain, agriculture, air, environment, creatures such as snakes and their interrelationship.

The Shrauta and [[Grhyasutras (गृह्यसूत्राणि)|Grhyasutras]] describe a number of yajnas related to agricultural operations and welfare of cattle.  

The Shrauta and [[Grhyasutras (गृह्यसूत्राणि)|Grhyasutras]] describe a number of yajnas related to agricultural operations and welfare of cattle. The grhyasutras prescribe certain ceremonies to be performed at the time of ploughing the field. Ceremony of yoking the plough, called Halabhiyoga, is described in Gobhila Grhyasutras. Under an auspicious nakshatra, the householder performs a yajna with offerings made to deities such as Indra, Maruts, Parjanya, Ashani and Bhaga, Sita and others. These deities are again worshiped during the time of making the first furrow called Sita Yajna, at the sowing of seeds called Pravapana, at the time of reaping the crop called Pralavana, at the time of threshing the grains called Khala Yajna and at the time of putting the corn into the barn (Prayayana). Manava Grhyasutras also describe these yajnas in detail. The Aagrayana is an offering of first fruits of the season, which is ancient tradition mentioned in the Aitareya and Kaushitaki Brahmana. The [[Shrautasutras (श्रौतसूत्राणि)|Shrautasutras]] describe Aagrayana as an important Shrauta yajna, while the Grhyasutras also mention it for Anahitagnis respectively. Many Rigveda mantras are recited during this ceremony.<ref name=":02">Gopal, Ram. (1959) ''India of Vedic Kalpasutras.'' Delhi : National Publishing House</ref>

 

The grhyasutras prescribe certain ceremonies to be performed at the time of ploughing the field. Ceremony of yoking the plough, called Halabhiyoga, is described in Gobhila Grhyasutras. Under an auspicious nakshatra, the householder performs a yajna with offerings made to deities such as Indra, Maruts, Parjanya, Ashani and Bhaga, Sita and others. These deities are again worshiped during the time of making the first furrow called Sita Yajna, at the sowing of seeds called Pravapana, at the time of reaping the crop called Pralavana, at the time of threshing the grains called Khala Yajna and at the time of putting the corn into the barn (Prayayana). Manava Grhyasutras also describe these yajnas in detail. The Aagrayana is an offering of first fruits of the season, which is ancient tradition mentioned in the Aitareya and Kaushitaki Brahmana. The [[Shrautasutras (श्रौतसूत्राणि)|Shrautasutras]] describe Aagrayana as an important Shrauta yajna, while the Grhyasutras also mention it for Anahitagnis respectively. Many Rigveda mantras are recited during this ceremony.

Sita Yajna is an other important yajna mentioned in the Grhyasutras. The word Sita (सीता) literally means a "furrow", addressed as a deity in the Rigveda (4.57.6-7). A detailed account of the Sita Yajna is found in the Paraskara Grhyasutras.

Sita Yajna is an other important yajna mentioned in the Grhyasutras. The word Sita (सीता) literally means a "furrow", addressed as a deity in the Rigveda (4.57.6-7). A detailed account of the Sita Yajna is found in the Paraskara Grhyasutras.<ref name=":02" />

Vrshotsarga is an important cattle related yajna that is mentioned in the sutra texts. The word Vrishotsarga literally means "the letting loose of a stud-bull" for the purposes of breeding and yajna is so named after it. The Shankhyana, Paraskara, and Kathaka grhyasutras give an account of this rite.  

Vrshotsarga is an important cattle related yajna that is mentioned in the sutra texts. The word Vrishotsarga literally means "the letting loose of a stud-bull" for the purposes of breeding and yajna is so named after it. The Shankhyana, Paraskara, and Kathaka grhyasutras give an account of this rite.<ref name=":02" />

The Chaturmasya yajna or the four monthly rites were held at the beginning of the three seasons of four months each. These were carried out as preventive and expiatory rites. The four rites were known as Vaisvedeva, Varunapraghasa, Sakamedha and Sunaasira. Two among these four rites, Varunapraghasa and Sunaseera had direct link with agriculture. The former held in the rainy season was carried out for good rains, getting good yield of food grains and increase of cattle wealth. The latter, Sunaasira, which means the plough,  Not only this, symbolic agricultural activities were pursued on sacrificial ground with the purpose of successful crop-raising.

The Chaturmasya yajna or the four monthly rites were held at the beginning of the three seasons of four months each. These were carried out as preventive and expiatory rites. The four rites were known as Vaisvedeva, Varunapraghasa, Sakamedha and Sunaasira. Two among these four rites, Varunapraghasa and Sunaseera had direct link with agriculture. The former held in the rainy season was carried out for good rains, getting good yield of food grains and increase of cattle wealth. The latter, Sunaasira, which means the plough,  Not only this, symbolic agricultural activities were pursued on sacrificial ground with the purpose of successful crop-raising.

The development of agriculture is reflected in the number of tools and implements fashioned by the people of different communities. Of the different stages in cultivation the impact of implements is seen in the first and basic one, that is tillage. The nature of operations under the tillage may vary from region to region and so will vary the implements used. The most important of the tools being the plough, is referred to as Langala and Sira in ancient texts. It was made of hard wood like Khadira and Udumhara. Sira (plough) was attached Isa (pole) with a yuga (yoke) attached at its upper side.  

The development of agriculture is reflected in the number of tools and implements fashioned by the people of different communities. Of the different stages in cultivation the impact of implements is seen in the first and basic one, that is tillage. The nature of operations under the tillage may vary from region to region and so will vary the implements used. The most important of the tools being the plough, is referred to as Langala and Sira in ancient texts. It was made of hard wood like Khadira and Udumhara. Sira (plough) was attached Isa (pole) with a yuga (yoke) attached at its upper side.  

An in depth study of these processes show how our ancient farmer has holistic education in various sciences compared to the modern day scientist.   

An in depth study of these processes show how our ancient farmer has holistic education in various sciences compared to the modern day scientist.   

== Modern Agriculture ==

== Modern Agriculture ==

In a stark contrast to the traditional agricultural practices, modern systems of agriculture use genetically engineered and/or hybrid seeds of single crop variety, technologically driven implements and equipments such as tractors, shredders, spreaders etc, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and water to produce large amounts of single crop. A few characteristics of modern agriculture include the following

In a stark contrast to the traditional agricultural practices, modern systems of agriculture use genetically engineered and/or hybrid seeds of single crop variety, technologically driven implements and equipments such as tractors, shredders, spreaders etc, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and water to produce large amounts of single crop. A few characteristics of modern agriculture as discussed by Prof. D. P. Mishra include the following

* It has higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural area

* It has higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural area

* It has higher use of inputs such as capital, labor, fertilizers, pesticides, plant growth regulators, and mechanization for higher crop yields per unit land area. Many gadgets and implements are needed and higher electricity and fuel costs are involved.  

* It has higher use of inputs such as capital, labor, fertilizers, pesticides, plant growth regulators, and mechanization for higher crop yields per unit land area. Many gadgets and implements are needed and higher electricity and fuel costs are involved.