Changes

==== Occupations ====

==== Occupations ====

Occupations were associated with varnas. According to the Dharmasutras, Brahmanas (Brahmins) were to practice the occupation of teaching and practicing Vedas, and included the rtviks (priests) and purohits. Kshatriyas were involved in administration, military service and strategy. Trade and commerce, agriculture and cattle rearing were associated with the Vaishya varna. Shudras were involved in carpentry, fishing, hunting, and service to other varna people in various capacities. Here the Gautama Dharmasutra<ref name=":6" />definitions of various varnas are alluded to as an example. <blockquote>ब्राह्मनस्याधिकाः प्रवचनयाजनप्रतिग्रहाः ॥२॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.2)</blockquote><blockquote>राज्ञोऽधिकं रक्षणं सर्वभूतानाम् ॥७॥ न्याय्यदण्डत्वम् ॥८॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.7, 8)</blockquote><blockquote>वैश्यस्याधिकं कृषिवणिक्पाशुपाल्यकुसीदम् ॥४९ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.49)</blockquote><blockquote>तेभ्यो वृत्तिं लिप्सेत ॥५७ ॥ शिल्पवृत्तिश् च ॥६० (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.58-59)<ref name=":6" /></blockquote>Summary: Teaching, officiating during yajnas, and receiving danas (gifts) pertain to Brahmanas. To a Raja (kshtriya) pertains the protection of all creatures, justice, punishment. A vaishya, in addition, relates to agriculture, trade, cattle breeding, and money lending for interest. A shudra may seek livelihood from other varna people, and by working as artisans.

Occupations were associated with varnas. According to the Dharmasutras, Brahmanas (Brahmins) were to practice the occupation of teaching and practicing Vedas, and included the rtviks (priests) and purohits. Kshatriyas were involved in administration, military service and strategy. Trade and commerce, agriculture and cattle rearing were associated with the Vaishya varna. Shudras were involved in carpentry, fishing, hunting, and service to other varna people in various capacities.  Baudhayana Dharmasutras (1.10) and other texts discuss the topics related to occupation extensively. Here the Gautama Dharmasutra<ref name=":6" />definitions of various varnas are alluded to as an example. <blockquote>ब्राह्मनस्याधिकाः प्रवचनयाजनप्रतिग्रहाः ॥२॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.2)</blockquote><blockquote>राज्ञोऽधिकं रक्षणं सर्वभूतानाम् ॥७॥ न्याय्यदण्डत्वम् ॥८॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.7, 8)</blockquote><blockquote>वैश्यस्याधिकं कृषिवणिक्पाशुपाल्यकुसीदम् ॥४९ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.49)</blockquote><blockquote>तेभ्यो वृत्तिं लिप्सेत ॥५७ ॥ शिल्पवृत्तिश् च ॥६० (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.58-59)<ref name=":6" /></blockquote>Summary: Teaching, officiating during yajnas, and receiving danas (gifts) pertain to Brahmanas. To a Raja (kshtriya) pertains the protection of all creatures, justice, punishment. A vaishya, in addition, relates to agriculture, trade, cattle breeding, and money lending for interest. A shudra may seek livelihood from other varna people, and by working as artisans.  

A few other related points include the following

A few other related points include the following

* He instructs the potters to manufacture as many bricks as may be adequate for piling up the chiti (altar), numerous big and small cooking vessels required for the performance of Ashvamedha yajna.

* He instructs the potters to manufacture as many bricks as may be adequate for piling up the chiti (altar), numerous big and small cooking vessels required for the performance of Ashvamedha yajna.

* Here in Baudhayana shrauta sutra 15.13 and 15.15 blacksmiths and goldsmiths are mentioned separately. Goldsmiths generally make ornaments of gold and silver, while blacksmiths manufactured articles of iron, copper, and bell-metal. The Maharaja instructs the blacksmith to prepare arrow-tips and arrows of metals such as iron, bronze, lead and a cooking pot made of iron. He instructs the goldsmiths to prepare gold coins, pots of gold and silver, and ornaments of such as pins, girdles, fans, garlands of gold and silver for royal use.<ref name=":2" />  

* Here in Baudhayana shrauta sutra 15.13 and 15.15 blacksmiths and goldsmiths are mentioned separately. Goldsmiths generally make ornaments of gold and silver, while blacksmiths manufactured articles of iron, copper, and bell-metal. The Maharaja instructs the blacksmith to prepare arrow-tips and arrows of metals such as iron, bronze, lead and a cooking pot made of iron. He instructs the goldsmiths to prepare gold coins, pots of gold and silver, and ornaments of such as pins, girdles, fans, garlands of gold and silver for royal use.<ref name=":2" />  

* Manufacture of war weapons, tools for agriculture, carpentry apart from household requirements were prepared by blacksmiths. Gobhil GS mentions a vessel made of bell-metal (अथ हविर्निर्वपति व्रीहीन्वा यवान्वा कँसेन वा चरुस्थाल्या वा २) (Gobh.Grhy. Sutr. 1.7.2) and the Asv GS mentions vessels made of copper, metal, stone and clay. (19th reference).

* Manufacture of war weapons, tools for agriculture, carpentry apart from household requirements were prepared by blacksmiths. Gobhil Grhyasutras mentions a vessel made of bell-metal (अथ हविर्निर्वपति व्रीहीन्वा यवान्वा कँसेन वा चरुस्थाल्या वा २) (Gobh. Grhy. Sutr. 1.7.2) and the Ashvalayana Grhyasutra ( 4.3.18 and 4.7.8) mentions vessels made of copper, metal, stone and clay<ref name=":5" />.

* The use of mirror is frequently prescribed in the Sutras. A mirror is presented to the bride at the time of marriage and was also used during performance of tonsure and Simantonnayana. Ornaments of glass are also mentioned in Srautasutras.  

* The use of mirror is frequently prescribed in the Sutras. A mirror is presented to the bride at the time of marriage and was also used during performance of tonsure and Simantonnayana. Ornaments of glass are also mentioned in Srautasutras.  

* Weaving was a flourishing industry and the sutra texts mention numerous varieties of clothes. Cotton, wool, hemp and flax were generally used for weaving cloth. Though the entire process of preparation of clothes is not mentioned in the Sutras, Paraskara's reference to a full spindle shows that yarn was spun with a charkha.   

* Weaving was a flourishing industry and the sutra texts mention numerous varieties of clothes. Cotton, wool, hemp and flax were generally used for weaving cloth. Though the entire process of preparation of clothes is not mentioned in the Sutras, Paraskara's reference to a full spindle shows that yarn was spun with a charkha.   

==== Trade and Commerce ====

==== Trade and Commerce ====

Trade was no doubt an important occupation of the Sutra period. The first three varnas, the dvijas, are allowed by the Dharmasutras to practice trade. Cereals, livestock, cloth, wool, liquors, herbs, metals, hides, salt, wood, agricultural implements, ropes, utensils, condiments,  jewellery, perfumes, pepper, and arms were the main articles of trade. The sale of cooked food is also referred to in the Sutras as in क्रीतोत्पन्नेन वा वर्तेरन् १५ (Ashv. Grhy. Sutr. 4.4.15)<ref name=":5" />. Sale of the sacred Soma has been mentioned and it is amusing to note that haggling over the price of Soma is referred to in the following sections of Katyayana Shrautasutras. <blockquote>स आह सोमविक्रयिन् क्रय्यस्ते सोमो राजा इति २ क्रय्य इत्याह सोमविक्रयी ३ तं वै ते क्रीणानीति ४ क्रीणीहीत्याह सोमविक्रयी ५ कलया ते क्रीणानीति ६ भूयो वा अतः सोमो राजाऽर्हतीत्याह सोमविक्रयी ७.... (Katy. Shrau. Sutr. 7.8.2-7)<ref>Katyayana Shrautasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4 Adhyaya 7])</ref></blockquote>Sutras describe the occupations suitable to each varna and alternatives, when their original occupation is not possible, in times of adversity. Gautama Dharmasutras for example, explain that a Brahmin may live by the occupations of a Kshatriya and when these are unavailable, by the occupations of a Vaishya.  <blockquote>तस्यापण्यम् ॥ गन्धरसकृतान्नतिलशानक्षौमाजिनानि ॥ रक्तनिर्णिक्ते वाससी ॥ क्षीरं सविकारम् ॥ मूलफलपुष्पौषधमधुमांसतृणोदकापथ्यानि ॥ पशवश् च हिंसासंयोगे ॥ पुरुशवशाकुमारीवेहतश् च नित्यम् ॥ भूमिव्रीहियवाजाव्यश्वऋषभधेन्वनडुहश् चैके ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 7.8-15)<ref name=":6">Gautama Dharmasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>One may not trade in the following good: perfumes, condiments, cooked or prepared foods (कृतान्नम्), sesame seeds, hemp or linen cloth, animal skins, clothes that are dyed red or washed, milk and milk products, roots, fruits, flowers, medicinal plants, honey, flesh, grass, water, and apathya foods (अपथ्यानि), animals and those activities associated with slaughter. At all times he should refrain from trade in human beings, barren cows, heifers, and pregnant cows. Few mention that one may not also trade in land, vreehi (food grains), yava (barley), goats, sheep, horses, bulls, cows, and oxen.

Trade was no doubt an important occupation of the Sutra period. The first three varnas, the dvijas, are allowed by the Dharmasutras to practice trade. Cereals, livestock, cloth, wool, liquors, herbs, metals, hides, salt, wood, agricultural implements, ropes, utensils, condiments,  jewellery, perfumes, pepper, and arms were the main articles of trade. The sale of cooked food is also referred to in the Sutras as in क्रीतोत्पन्नेन वा वर्तेरन् १५ (Ashv. Grhy. Sutr. 4.4.15)<ref name=":5" />. Sale of the sacred Soma has been mentioned and it is amusing to note that haggling over the price of Soma is referred to in the following sections of Katyayana Shrautasutras. <blockquote>स आह सोमविक्रयिन् क्रय्यस्ते सोमो राजा इति २ क्रय्य इत्याह सोमविक्रयी ३ तं वै ते क्रीणानीति ४ क्रीणीहीत्याह सोमविक्रयी ५ कलया ते क्रीणानीति ६ भूयो वा अतः सोमो राजाऽर्हतीत्याह सोमविक्रयी ७.... (Katy. Shrau. Sutr. 7.8.2-7)<ref>Katyayana Shrautasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4 Adhyaya 7])</ref></blockquote>Sutras describe the occupations suitable to each varna and alternatives, when their original occupation is not possible, in times of adversity. Gautama Dharmasutras for example, explain that a Brahmin may live by the occupations of a Kshatriya and when these are unavailable, by the occupations of a Vaishya.  <blockquote>तस्यापण्यम् ॥ गन्धरसकृतान्नतिलशानक्षौमाजिनानि ॥ रक्तनिर्णिक्ते वाससी ॥ क्षीरं सविकारम् ॥ मूलफलपुष्पौषधमधुमांसतृणोदकापथ्यानि ॥ पशवश् च हिंसासंयोगे ॥ पुरुशवशाकुमारीवेहतश् च नित्यम् ॥ भूमिव्रीहियवाजाव्यश्वऋषभधेन्वनडुहश् चैके ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 7.8-15)<ref name=":6">Gautama Dharmasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>One may not trade in the following good: perfumes, condiments, cooked or prepared foods (कृतान्नम्), sesame seeds, hemp or linen cloth, animal skins, clothes that are dyed red or washed, milk and milk products, roots, fruits, flowers, medicinal plants, honey, flesh, grass, water, and apathya foods (अपथ्यानि), animals and those activities associated with slaughter. At all times he should refrain from trade in human beings, barren cows, heifers, and pregnant cows. Few mention that one may not also trade in land, vreehi (food grains), yava (barley), goats, sheep, horses, bulls, cows, and oxen.

Gautama Dharmasutras mention the occupations of the four varnas; the primary activities of a dvija (the first three varnas who undergo initiation) include adhyayana (vedic studies), performing yajnas and giving away gifts (danas). <blockquote>द्विजातीनाम् अध्ययनम् इज्या दानम् ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.1)<ref name=":6" /></blockquote>Then the exceptions are mentioned where vedas may be imparted by Brahmins in exchange for knowledge or money. One may note the prescribed interchange of occupations, as seen in the case where brahmins are allowed to engage in agriculture and trade if he does not do the work himself (कृषिवाणिज्ये वास्वयंकृते ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.5), including other vaishya related activities of lending money on interest.

Gautama Dharmasutras mention the occupations of the four varnas; the primary activities of a dvija (the first three varnas who undergo initiation) include adhyayana (vedic studies), performing yajnas and giving away gifts (danas). <blockquote>द्विजातीनाम् अध्ययनम् इज्या दानम् ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.1)<ref name=":6" /></blockquote>Further the exceptions are mentioned where vedas may be imparted by Brahmins in exchange for knowledge or money. One may note the prescribed interchange of occupations, as seen in the case where brahmins are allowed to engage in agriculture and trade if he does not do the work himself (कृषिवाणिज्ये वास्वयंकृते ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.5), including other vaishya related activities of lending money on interest.

Like agricultural rites to increase crop yields, Sutras prescribe certain rites for those who desire to gain success in trade. 29 Page. A rite for successful business trip is mentioned in Kausika Sutra (42, 1-5)

Like agricultural rites to increase crop yields, Sutras prescribe certain rites for those who desire to gain success in trade. 29 Page. A rite for successful business trip is mentioned in Kausika Sutra (42, 1-5)

Trade in exchange for commodities was prevalent as was purchasing them for money. Sea voyages and travel to distant places to promote trade and commerce are described in the Sutra granthas Baudh DS (1.1.2.4) refers to travel overseas undertaken by the Northerners.   

Trade in exchange for commodities was prevalent as was purchasing them for money. Economic activities of the ancient Bharat were not limited to just the sale, purchase and exchange of local commodities. The Sutras portray promotion of trade and commerce by travel to distant places and even overseas journeys. Sea voyages are mentioned in Baudhayana Dharmasutras in the context of explaining the regional differences.  <blockquote>अथ_उत्तरत ऊर्णा-विक्रयः सीधु-पानम् उभयतस्-दद्भिर् व्यवहार आयुधीयकं समुद्र-संयानम् इति ॥ (Baud. Dhar. Sutr. 1.2.4)<ref>Baudhayana Dharmasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Full Text])</ref></blockquote>The peculiarities of the northerners include selling wool, drinking seedhu (alcoholic beverages), dealing with animals having teeth in both jaws, making or dealing in weapons, travelling by the sea.<ref>Olivelle. Patrick, (1999) ''Dharmasutras. The Law Codes of Apastamba, Gautama, Baudhayana and Vasistha.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press (Page 137)</ref>  

==== Transport and Communication ====

==== Transport and Communication ====