Changes

The word '<nowiki/>''philosophy''<nowiki/>' means 'love of learning'. It signifies a natural and necessary urge in human beings to know themselves and the world in which they 'live and move and have their being'. The word '''darshana''<nowiki/>' means 'vision' and also the 'instrument of vision'. It stands for the direct, intermediate and intuitive vision of Reality, the actual perception of Truth, and also includes the means which lead to this Realization.<ref name=":22">Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962). ''The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey.'' USA: Barnes & Noble, Inc.</ref>

The word '<nowiki/>''philosophy''<nowiki/>' means 'love of learning'. It signifies a natural and necessary urge in human beings to know themselves and the world in which they 'live and move and have their being'. The word '''darshana''<nowiki/>' means 'vision' and also the 'instrument of vision'. It stands for the direct, intermediate and intuitive vision of Reality, the actual perception of Truth, and also includes the means which lead to this Realization.<ref name=":22">Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962). ''The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey.'' USA: Barnes & Noble, Inc.</ref>

Brhdaranyaka Upanishad describes the fundamental concept of Atma (आत्मा ) during [[Yajnavalkya Maitreyi samvada (याज्ञवल्क्यमैत्रेय्योः संवादः)|Yajnavalkya Maitreyi Samvada]] as follows <blockquote>साक्षात् मोक्षसाधनानि इमानि आत्मा वा अरे द्रष्टव्यः श्रोतव्यो मन्तव्यो निदिध्यासितव्यः । - बृहदारण्यकोपनिषत् २-४-५  </blockquote>आत्मा वा अरे द्रष्टव्यः । See the Self is the keynote of all schools of Bharatiya Darshana Shastras.  And this is also the reason why most of these schools are also religious sects.<ref name=":22" />

Brhdaranyaka Upanishad describes the fundamental concept of Atma (आत्मा ) during [[Yajnavalkya Maitreyi samvada (याज्ञवल्क्यमैत्रेय्योः संवादः)|Yajnavalkya Maitreyi Samvada]] as follows <blockquote>साक्षात् मोक्षसाधनानि इमानि आत्मा वा अरे द्रष्टव्यः श्रोतव्यो मन्तव्यो निदिध्यासितव्यः । बृहदारण्यकोपनिषत् २-४-५  </blockquote>आत्मा वा अरे द्रष्टव्यः । See the Self is the keynote of all schools of Bharatiya Darshana Shastras.  And this is also the reason why most of these schools are also religious sects.<ref name=":22" />

== Origin of Darshanas ==

== Origin of Darshanas ==

The origin of Indian Philosophy, easily traced in the Vedas, has developed as an autonomous system practically unaffected by external influences.<ref name=":22" />

The origin of Indian Philosophy, easily traced in the Vedas, has developed as an autonomous system practically unaffected by external influences.<ref name=":22" />

Upon this foundation of the Upanishads, principal systems of philosophy developed with systematic treatises being written in short pregnant half sentences called Sutras, which did not elaborate the subject, but were intended for those who had direct elaborate oral instructions on the subject.<ref name=":12" />

Upon this foundation of the Upanishads, principal systems of philosophy developed with systematic treatises being written in short pregnant half sentences called Sutras, which did not elaborate the subject, but were intended for those who had direct elaborate oral instructions on the subject.<ref name=":12" />

== Systematization of Darshanas ==

== Systematization of Darshanas ==

It can be seen that the spirit of philosophical enquiry, although had begun in the days of the earliest Upanishads, had continued even in circles other than those of the Upanishads. The Buddha and Jaina activities were also probably happening concurrently as no reference to them is seen in the Upanishads. Thus, it can be said that there were different forms of philosophical inquiry in spheres other than those of the Upanishads, of which we have but scanty records. In the assemblies of the sages and their pupils, the views of the heretical or heterodox thinkers were probably discussed and refuted. So it may have continued until some illustrious member of the assembly such as Gautama or Kanada collected the purport of these discussions on various topics and problems, filled up many of the missing links, classified and arranged these on the form of a system of philosophy and recorded it in '''Sutras'''.<ref name=":12" /> Thus, the object of these treatises, whether Astika or Nastika Darshanas, is three-fold   

It can be seen that the spirit of philosophical enquiry, although had begun in the days of the earliest Upanishads, had continued even in circles other than those of the Upanishads. The Buddha and Jaina activities were also probably happening concurrently as no reference to them is seen in the Upanishads. Thus, it can be said that there were different forms of philosophical inquiry in spheres other than those of the Upanishads, of which we have but scanty records. In the assemblies of the sages and their pupils, the views of the heretical or heterodox thinkers were probably discussed and refuted. So it may have continued until some illustrious member of the assembly such as Gautama or Kanada collected the purport of these discussions on various topics and problems, filled up many of the missing links, classified and arranged these on the form of a system of philosophy and recorded it in '''Sutras (सूत्रम्)'''.<ref name=":12" /> Thus, the object of these treatises, whether Astika or Nastika Darshanas, is three-fold   

# To consolidate the teaching of the particular school to which they belong.   

# To consolidate the teaching of the particular school to which they belong.   

# To criticize others where they diverge from a particular school.   

# To criticize others where they diverge from a particular school.   

# To defend and uphold the school to which they belonged by putting forth references, explanations and interpretations in the form of commentaries.   

# To defend and uphold the school to which they belonged by putting forth references, explanations and interpretations in the form of commentaries.   

Such was the high esteem and respect in which these writers of the Sutras were held by later day writers that whenever they had any new speculations to offer, these were reconciled with the doctrines of one or other of the existing systems, and put down as faithful interpretations of the system in the form of '''Commentaries'''.<ref name=":12" /> Thus, the literature of each school of Philosophy consists of its own Sutra with commentaries and super-commentaries upon it, as also of certain independent treatises (prakarana) which expound the doctrine as a whole with a view to aid beginners, or discuss one or more aspects of it from the standpoint of the advanced student. The chief sign of systematization is seen in the analysis of the nature and function of knowledge or to the problems of what and how we know. A common feature of all the systems is that they involve, if they do not actually start with, an investigation of '''Pramanas'''.   

Such was the high esteem and respect in which these writers of the Sutras were held by later day writers that whenever they had any new speculations to offer, these were reconciled with the doctrines of one or other of the existing systems, and put down as faithful interpretations of the system in the form of '''Commentaries (भाष्यम्)'''.<ref name=":12" /> Thus, the literature of each school of Philosophy consists of its own Sutra with commentaries and super-commentaries upon it, as also of certain independent treatises (prakarana) which expound the doctrine as a whole with a view to aid beginners, or discuss one or more aspects of it from the standpoint of the advanced student. The chief sign of systematization is seen in the analysis of the nature and function of knowledge or to the problems of what and how we know. A common feature of all the systems is that they involve, if they do not actually start with, an investigation of '''Pramanas (प्रमाणम्)'''.   

Pramana is defined as the proximate means to valid knowledge or ''prama''. They are usually regarded as a help not only in acquiring new knowledge, but also in verifying what is already known, so that logic as conceived in Bharatavarsha, is a science both of proof and of discovery. A Pramana, like perception, may reveal the existence and nature of things not hitherto known. It may also be the means of verification, as when an object apprehended by the organ of sight is tested by means of touch or whena doubt arising in respect of something inferred is cleared by actual observation. There is much divergence of opinion among Indian thinkers concerning the number of pramanas accepted among the schools. The number of pramanas they accept range from one to six in general categorized under [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)]].   

Pramana is defined as the proximate means to valid knowledge or prama (प्रमा). They are usually regarded as a help not only in acquiring new knowledge, but also in verifying what is already known, so that logic as conceived in Bharatavarsha, is a science both of proof and of discovery. A Pramana, like perception, may reveal the existence and nature of things not hitherto known. It may also be the means of verification, as when an object apprehended by the organ of sight is tested by means of touch or when a doubt arising in respect of something inferred is cleared by actual observation. There is much divergence of opinion among Indian thinkers concerning the number of pramanas accepted among the schools. The number of pramanas they accept range from one to six in general categorized under [[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)]].   

Such was the hold of these systems upon scholars that all the orthodox teachers belonged to one or the other of these schools since the foundation of the systems of philosophy. Their pupils were thus naturally brought up in accordance with the views of their teachers. All the independence of their thinking was limited and enchained by the faith of the school to which they were attached. Instead of seeing growth of free lance thinking and new theories, India brought forth schools of pupils who carried the traditional views of a particular school from generation to generation, who explained and defended them against the attacks of other rival schools, which they constantly attacked in order to establish the superiority of the system to which they adhere.<ref name=":12" /> For example, sutras of the Nyaya system of philosophy are attributed to Gautama, also called as Akshapada. The series of commentaries written by many adherents of this system, on these sutras, while conforming to the tradition yet showing novelty in thinking may be summarized as follows:   

Such was the hold of these systems upon scholars that all the orthodox teachers belonged to one or the other of these schools since the foundation of the systems of philosophy. Their pupils were thus naturally brought up in accordance with the views of their teachers. All the independence of their thinking was limited and enchained by the faith of the school to which they were attached. Instead of seeing growth of free lance thinking and new theories, India brought forth schools of pupils who carried the traditional views of a particular school from generation to generation, who explained and defended them against the attacks of other rival schools, which they constantly attacked in order to establish the superiority of the system to which they adhere.<ref name=":12" /> For example, sutras of the Nyaya system of philosophy are attributed to Gautama, also called as Akshapada. The series of commentaries written by many adherents of this system, on these sutras, while conforming to the tradition yet showing novelty in thinking may be summarized as follows:   

* Nastika (नास्तिकः)

* Nastika (नास्तिकः)

The term ''Astika'' comes from the Samskrit word Asti (अस्ति । there is) is defined as one that accepts the authority of the Vedas (sacred scriptures of ancient India). The ''Nastika'' (न अस्ति । it is not) views are those which neither regard the Vedas as infallible nor try to establish their own validity on their authority.     

The term ''Astika'' comes from the Samskrit word Asti (अस्ति । there is) is defined as one that accepts the authority of the Vedas (sacred scriptures of ancient India). The ''Nastika'' (न अस्ति । it is not) views are those which neither regard the Vedas as infallible nor try to establish their own validity on their authority.     

== अास्तिकदर्शनानि ॥ Astika Darshanas ==

=== अास्तिकदर्शनानि ॥ Astika Darshanas ===

The term Astika (Samskrit : अास्तिकः) according to Vachaspatyam means अस्ति परलोक इति मतिर्यस्य । one who believes in the existence of paraloka (other worlds). Some schools of philosophy are based on the Vedas all of which proclaim the existence of other lokas (worlds), punarjanma (rebirth), existence of a supreme power etc.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":02">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 47-51</ref> Six systems of the Indian philosophy called popularly as the Shad Darsanas are the Astika darshanas. They include:

The term Astika (Samskrit : अास्तिकः) according to Vachaspatyam means अस्ति परलोक इति मतिर्यस्य । one who believes in the existence of paraloka (other worlds). Some schools of philosophy are based on the Vedas all of which proclaim the existence of other lokas (worlds), punarjanma (rebirth), existence of a supreme power etc.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":02">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 47-51</ref> Six systems of the Indian philosophy called popularly as the Shad Darsanas are the Astika darshanas. They include:

#  न्यायः || [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]] (Rishi Gautama)

#  न्यायः || [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]] (Rishi Gautama)

We find that Padma purana introduces these shastras in the following slokas<blockquote>कणादेन तु संप्रोक्तं शास्त्रं वैशेषिकं महत् । गौतमेन तथा न्यायं सांख्यं तु कपिलेन वै ॥ (Padm. Pura.6.236.4-5) <ref>Padma Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/पद्मपुराणम्/खण्डः_६_(उत्तरखण्डः)/अध्यायः_२३६ Kanda 6 Adhyaya 236])</ref> </blockquote><blockquote>kaṇādena tu saṃproktaṃ śāstraṃ vaiśeṣikaṃ mahat । gautamena tathā nyāyaṃ sāṃkhyaṃ tu kapilena vai ॥ </blockquote>Meaning : The Vaisheshika shastra has been elucidated by Kanada, while the Nyaya shastra was given by Gautama Rishi, and Samkhya shastra was by Kapila Rishi.

We find that Padma purana introduces these shastras in the following slokas<blockquote>कणादेन तु संप्रोक्तं शास्त्रं वैशेषिकं महत् । गौतमेन तथा न्यायं सांख्यं तु कपिलेन वै ॥ (Padm. Pura.6.236.4-5) <ref>Padma Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/पद्मपुराणम्/खण्डः_६_(उत्तरखण्डः)/अध्यायः_२३६ Kanda 6 Adhyaya 236])</ref> </blockquote><blockquote>kaṇādena tu saṃproktaṃ śāstraṃ vaiśeṣikaṃ mahat । gautamena tathā nyāyaṃ sāṃkhyaṃ tu kapilena vai ॥ </blockquote>Meaning : The Vaisheshika shastra has been elucidated by Kanada, while the Nyaya shastra was given by Gautama Rishi, and Samkhya shastra was by Kapila Rishi.

== नास्तिकदर्शनानि ॥ Nastika Darshanas ==

=== नास्तिकदर्शनानि ॥ Nastika Darshanas ===

The three fundamental heterodox systems of philosophy are <ref name=":12" /><ref name=":32" /><ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 186</ref>:

The three fundamental heterodox systems of philosophy are <ref name=":12" /><ref name=":32" /><ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 186</ref>:

# The Materialistic School of Charvaka

# The Materialistic School of Charvaka

When the term Shad Darsanas is employed, it means the six Astika Darsanas. In this article the six Astika systems of Indian Philosophy will be introduced.   

When the term Shad Darsanas is employed, it means the six Astika Darsanas. In this article the six Astika systems of Indian Philosophy will be introduced.   

== Fundamental Points of Agreement ==

== दर्शनानं सांम्यम् ॥ Fundamental Points of Agreement ==

The systems of philosophy in India were not stirred up merely by the speculative demands of the human mind which has a natural inclination for indulging in abstract thought, but by deep craving after the realization of the religious purpose of life.  It is to be noted that the postulates, aims and conditions for such a realization were found to be identical in all the conflicting systems that have evolved. It is remarkable that with the exception of the Charvaka materialists all the other systems agree on some fundamental points of importance, namely.  

The systems of philosophy in India were not stirred up merely by the speculative demands of the human mind which has a natural inclination for indulging in abstract thought, but by deep craving after the realization of the religious purpose of life.  It is to be noted that the postulates, aims and conditions for such a realization were found to be identical in all the conflicting systems that have evolved. It is remarkable that with the exception of the Charvaka materialists all the other systems agree on some fundamental points of importance, namely.  

# Karma and Punarjana siddhanta  

# Karma (कर्म) and Punarjana (पुनर्जन्मः) siddhanta  

# Mukti siddhanta

# Mukti (मुक्तिः) siddhanta

# Atma (Soul) siddhanta

# Atma (आत्मा । Soul) siddhanta

Whatever may be their differences of opinion in other matters, so far as the general postulates for the realization of the transcendent state were concerned, all systems were practically in thorough agreement.<ref name=":12" />

Whatever may be their differences of opinion in other matters, so far as the general postulates for the realization of the transcendent state were concerned, all systems were practically in thorough agreement.<ref name=":12" />

== कर्मसिद्धान्तः ॥ Karma Siddhanta ==

== कर्मसिद्धान्तः ॥ Karma Siddhanta ==

* Nyaya calls it absolutely quantityless and characterless, indeterminate unconscious entity.

* Nyaya calls it absolutely quantityless and characterless, indeterminate unconscious entity.

* Samkhya describes it as being of the nature of pure consciousness.

* Samkhya describes it as being of the nature of pure consciousness.

* Vedanta says that it is that fundamental point of unity implied in pure consciousness (chit), pure bliss (ananda) and pure being (sat).  

* Vedanta says that it is that fundamental point of unity implied in pure consciousness (चित् । chit), pure bliss (आनन्दम् । ananda) and pure being (सत् । sat).  

But all agree in holding that it is pure and unsullied in its nature and that all impurities of action or passion do not form a real part of it. When all impurities are removed and the pure nature of the self is thoroughly and permanently apprehended and all other extraneous connections with it are absolutely dissociated.<ref name=":12" />

But all agree in holding that it is pure and unsullied in its nature and that all impurities of action or passion do not form a real part of it. When all impurities are removed and the pure nature of the self is thoroughly and permanently apprehended and all other extraneous connections with it are absolutely dissociated.<ref name=":12" />

== विवेकज्ञानम् ॥ Viveka Jnana ==

== विवेकज्ञानम् ॥ Viveka Jnana ==

Though the belief that the world is full of sorrow has not been equally prominently emphasized in all systems, yet it may be considered as being shared by all of them. It finds its strongest utterance in Samkhya, Yoga and Buddhism. This interminable chain of pleasurable and painful experiences does not lead one to a peaceful end but embroiling and entangling us in the meshes of karma, rebirth,  and sorrow. All human experiences are essentially sorrowful and ultimately sorrow begetting.  Sorrow is the ultimate truth of this process of the world. That which to an ordinary person seems pleasurable appears to a wise person or to a yogi who has a clearer vision as painful. The greater the knowledge the higher is the sensitiveness to sorrow and dissatisfaction with world experiences. This sorrow of worldly experiences cannot be removed by bringing in remedies for each sorrow, nor be avoided by mere inaction or suicide. The only way to get rid of it is by the culmination of moral greatness and true knowledge (Jnana) which uproot sorrow once and for all. It is our ignorance that the self is intimately connected with the experiences of life or its pleasures, that leads us to action and arouses passion in us for the enjoyment of pleasures and other emotions and activities.<ref name=":12" />   

Though the belief that the world is full of sorrow has not been equally prominently emphasized in all systems, yet it may be considered as being shared by all of them. It finds its strongest utterance in Samkhya, Yoga and Buddhism. This interminable chain of pleasurable and painful experiences does not lead one to a peaceful end but embroiling and entangling us in the meshes of karma, rebirth,  and sorrow. All human experiences are essentially sorrowful and ultimately sorrow begetting.  Sorrow is the ultimate truth of this process of the world. That which to an ordinary person seems pleasurable appears to a wise person or to a yogi who has a clearer vision as painful. The greater the knowledge the higher is the sensitiveness to sorrow and dissatisfaction with world experiences. This sorrow of worldly experiences cannot be removed by bringing in remedies for each sorrow, nor be avoided by mere inaction or suicide. The only way to get rid of it is by the culmination of moral greatness and true knowledge (ज्ञानम् । Jnana) which uproot sorrow once and for all. It is our ignorance that the self is intimately connected with the experiences of life or its pleasures, that leads us to action and arouses passion in us for the enjoyment of pleasures and other emotions and activities.<ref name=":12" />   

* The Upanishads tell us that the Vedas - the storehouse of knowledge - have been breathed forth from Him (Brhd. Upan. 2.4.10); but they regard the Karma-kanda as secondary, being only a help to purify the mind by which purification one is made fit to receive the real teaching about Brahman.   

* The Upanishads tell us that the Vedas - the storehouse of knowledge - have been breathed forth from Him (Brhd. Upan. 2.4.10); but they regard the Karma-kanda as secondary, being only a help to purify the mind by which purification one is made fit to receive the real teaching about Brahman.   

* We find in Chandogya Upanishad (7.2) the [[Narada Sanatkumara Samvada (नारदसनत्कुमारयोः संवादः)|Narada Sanatkumara Samvada]] that even though one is well-versed in the knowledge of the Vedas, Mantras and the Chaturdasha Vidyas, he or she could still be ignorant about the Self. Only one who knows the Self goes beyond sorrow.   

* We find in Chandogya Upanishad (7.2) the [[Narada Sanatkumara Samvada (नारदसनत्कुमारयोः संवादः)|Narada Sanatkumara Samvada]] that even though one is well-versed in the knowledge of the Vedas, Mantras and the Chaturdasha Vidyas, he or she could still be ignorant about the Self. Only one who knows the Self goes beyond sorrow.   

Through the highest moral elevation a man may attain absolute dispassion towards world-experiences and retire in body, mind and speech from all worldly concerns. When the mind is so purified the Self shines in its true light and its true nature is rightly conceived. When this once done the self can never again be associated with passion or ignorance. Self at this stage ultimately dissociates from ''Chitta'', which is the root of all emotions, ideas and actions. Thus, emancipated the self forever conquers all sorrow.<ref name=":12" />

Through the highest moral elevation a man may attain absolute dispassion towards world-experiences and retire in body, mind and speech from all worldly concerns. When the mind is so purified the Self shines in its true light and its true nature is rightly conceived. When this once done the self can never again be associated with passion or ignorance. Self at this stage ultimately dissociates from ''Chitta'', which is the root of all emotions, ideas and actions. Thus, emancipated the self forever conquers all sorrow.<ref name=":12" />

== Unity in Indian Sadhana ==

== Unity in Indian Sadhana ==

Thus we see that all Indian shastras agreed upon the general principles of ethical conduct which must be followed for the attainment of salvation. There are indeed divergences in certain details or technical names, but the means to be adopted for purification are almost same as those advocated by the Yoga system. It is in later times that devotion (bhakti) is seen to occupy a more prominent place specially in Vaishnava schools of thought. Thus, although many differences are seen among the various shastras, yet their goal of life, their attitude towards the world and means for the attainment of the goal (''sadhana'') fundamentally being the same, advocates a unique unity in the practical sadhana of almost all the Indian philosophical schools of thought. The religious craving has been universal in India and this uniformity of sadhana has therefore secured for India a unity in all her aspirations and strivings.<ref name=":12" />

Thus we see that all Indian shastras agreed upon the general principles of ethical conduct which must be followed for the attainment of salvation. There are indeed divergences in certain details or technical names, but the means to be adopted for purification are almost same as those advocated by the Yoga system. It is in later times that devotion (भक्तिः ।bhakti) is seen to occupy a more prominent place specially in Vaishnava schools of thought. Thus, although many differences are seen among the various shastras, yet their goal of life, their attitude towards the world and means for the attainment of the goal (साधना । sadhana) fundamentally being the same, advocates a unique unity in the practical sadhana of almost all the Indian philosophical schools of thought. The religious craving has been universal in India and this uniformity of sadhana has therefore secured for India a unity in all her aspirations and strivings.<ref name=":12" />

== Nyaya and Vaiseshika Darshanas ==

== Nyaya and Vaiseshika Darshanas ==

The Vaiseshika darshana is reagarded as conducive to the study of all systems. It deals with the Padarthas (catergories) and the entire universe is reduced to six or seven padarthas. The word 'padartha' means 'the meaning of a word' or 'the object signified by a word'. All objects of knowledge or all reals come under padartha. Padartha means an object which can be thought (jneya) and named (abhidheya). The Vaiseshika system is a pluralistic realism,  a philosophy of identity and difference, which emphasizes that the heart of reality consists on difference.  It is a mere catalogue of the knowables, an enumeration of the diverse reals without any attempt to synthesize them. Originally the Vaiseshika believed in the six categories and the seventh, that of Abhava or negation was added on later.  The Vaiseshika divides all existent reals which are all objects of knowledge into two classes - bhava or being and abhava or non-being. All knowledge necessarily points to an object beyond and independent of it. Nyaya accepts the metaphysics of the Vaiseshika school and the accounts of matter, soul and God are almost the same as those in the Vaiseshika.   

The Vaiseshika darshana is reagarded as conducive to the study of all systems. It deals with the Padarthas (पदार्थः । categories) and the entire universe is reduced to six or seven padarthas. The word 'padartha' means 'the meaning of a word' or 'the object signified by a word'. All objects of knowledge or all reals come under padartha. Padartha means an object which can be thought (ज्ञेयम् । jneya) and named (अभिधेयः । abhidheya). The Vaiseshika system is a pluralistic realism,  a philosophy of identity and difference, which emphasizes that the heart of reality consists on difference.  It is a mere catalogue of the knowables, an enumeration of the diverse reals without any attempt to synthesize them. Originally the Vaiseshika believed in the six categories and the seventh, that of Abhava or negation was added on later.  The Vaiseshika divides all existent reals which are all objects of knowledge into two classes - bhava or being and abhava or non-being. All knowledge necessarily points to an object beyond and independent of it. Nyaya accepts the metaphysics of the Vaiseshika school and the accounts of matter, soul and God are almost the same as those in the Vaiseshika.   

Nyaya-Vaiseshika believes in the doctrine of ''Asatkaryavada'' which means that the effect does not pre-exist in its cause. The effect is a new beginning, a fresh creation. It is also called Arambhavada or Paramanukaranavada. All physical things are produced by the combinations of atoms. Creation thus means the combination of atoms in different proportions and destruction means the dissolution of such combinations. The material cause of the Universe is neither produced nor destroyed. It is the eternal atoms. It is only the atomic combinations which are produced and which get destroyed. <ref name=":22" /> The following are the primary differences between Nyaya and Vaiseshika darshana concepts.   

Nyaya-Vaiseshika believes in the doctrine of ''Asatkaryavada'' (असत्कार्यवादः ) which means that the effect does not pre-exist in its cause. The effect is a new beginning, a fresh creation. It is also called Arambhavada (आरम्भवादः) or Paramanukaranavada (परमाणुकरणवादः). All physical things are produced by the combinations of atoms. Creation thus means the combination of atoms in different proportions and destruction means the dissolution of such combinations. The material cause of the Universe is neither produced nor destroyed. It is the eternal atoms. It is only the atomic combinations which are produced and which get destroyed. <ref name=":22" /> The following are the primary differences between Nyaya and Vaiseshika darshana concepts.   

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!Vaiseshika

!Vaiseshika