Changes

=== Questions ===

=== Questions ===

Shvetasvatara Upanishad in the very first instance puts forth these questions as deliberated by the Brahmavadins<blockquote>ॐ ब्रह्मवादिनो वदन्ति ।</blockquote><blockquote>किं कारणं ब्रह्म कुतः स्म जाता जीवाम केन क्व च सम्प्रतिष्ठा । अधिष्ठिताः केन सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे ब्रह्मविदो व्यवस्थाम् ॥ १ ॥ (Shve. Upan. 1.1.1)</blockquote>Summary : People accustomed to deliberate on Brahman discuss : What is the nature of Brahman, the Source (किं कारणं ब्रह्म)? From what have been born (कुतः स्म जाता)? By what do we live (जीवाम केन)? And where do we exist, rest, at the time of dissoution (क्व च सम्प्रतिष्ठा)? O Knowers of Brahman, regulated by whom (अधिष्ठिताः केन) do we conform to the system regarding happiness and its opposite namely sorrows (सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे)?

'''Shvetasvatara Upanishad''' in the very mantra puts forth these questions as deliberated by the Brahmavadins<blockquote>ॐ ब्रह्मवादिनो वदन्ति ।</blockquote><blockquote>किं कारणं ब्रह्म कुतः स्म जाता जीवाम केन क्व च सम्प्रतिष्ठा । अधिष्ठिताः केन सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे ब्रह्मविदो व्यवस्थाम् ॥ १ ॥ (Shve. Upan. 1.1.1)</blockquote>Summary : People accustomed to deliberate on Brahman discuss : What is the nature of Brahman, the Source (किं कारणं ब्रह्म)? From what have been born (कुतः स्म जाता)? By what do we live (जीवाम केन)? And where do we exist, rest, at the time of dissoution (क्व च सम्प्रतिष्ठा)? O Knowers of Brahman, regulated by whom (अधिष्ठिताः केन) do we conform to the system regarding happiness and its opposite namely sorrows (सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे)?

In this way the question "What is the cause" (किं कारणं । kiṁ kāraṇaṁ) pertains to the primordial cause of the regulation of creation, continuance and dissolution.<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (2009 Fourth Edition) ''Svetasvara Upanishad With the Commentary of Sankaracharya.'' Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama (Page 45-46)</ref>

In this way the question "What is the cause" (किं कारणं । kiṁ kāraṇaṁ) pertains to the primordial cause of the regulation of creation, continuance and dissolution.<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (2009 Fourth Edition) ''Svetasvara Upanishad With the Commentary of Sankaracharya.'' Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama (Page 45-46)</ref>

Mundakopanishad also raises the question of Knowledge<blockquote>कस्मिन्नु भगवो विज्ञाते सर्वमिदं विज्ञातं भवतीति ॥ ३ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.3)<ref>Mundaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Complete])</ref></blockquote>Meaning : What is that by knowing which everything in this universe is known?  

'''Mundakopanishad''' also raises the question of Knowledge<blockquote>कस्मिन्नु भगवो विज्ञाते सर्वमिदं विज्ञातं भवतीति ॥ ३ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.3)<ref>Mundaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D Complete])</ref></blockquote>Meaning : What is that by knowing which everything in this universe is known?  

=== Answers ===

=== Answers ===

The answer to it is found in the conception of a Supreme Being or Brahman as the ultimate cause of the Universe, from whom indeed beings are born, through whom they live and unto whom they return and merge in. The knower of Brahman attains the highest.

The answer to it is found in the conception of a Supreme Being or Brahman as the ultimate cause of the Universe, from whom indeed beings are born, through whom they live and unto whom they return and merge in. The knower of Brahman attains the highest.

==== Defining Brahman ====

==== ब्रह्मलक्षणम् ॥ Defining Brahman ====

Comprehensively put Taittriya Upanishad in the Brahmanandavalli defines Brahman thus

The characteristics of Brahma comprehensively put forth in Taittriya Upanishad in the Brahmanandavalli defines Brahman thus

  सत्यं ज्ञानमनन्तं ब्रह्म । satyaṁ jñānamanantaṁ brahma । Brahman is (Tait. Upan. 3.1)

  सत्यं ज्ञानमनन्तं ब्रह्म । satyaṁ jñānamanantaṁ brahma । Brahman is (Tait. Upan. 3.1)

==== ब्रह्मतत्वम् ॥ Nature of Brahman ====

==== ब्रह्मतत्वम् ॥ Nature of Brahman ====

Discussion on [[Brahmatattva (ब्रह्मतत्वम्)|Brahmatattva]] or nature of Brahman is extensive and ageless with numerous Upanishad and Vedanta bhashyas on the subject. Putting together the Upanishadic and Brahmasutra explanations, Brahman is said to have the following features  

Discussion on [[Brahmatattva (ब्रह्मतत्वम्)|Brahmatattva]] or nature of Brahman is extensive and ageless with numerous Upanishad and Vedanta bhashyas on the subject explaining different characteristics. Putting together the Upanishadic and Brahmasutra explanations, Brahman is said to have the following features  

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|

'''Nirguna Brahma (Advaita)'''

'''Nirguna Brahma (Advaita)'''

'''Advaita Vedantins''' totally dismisses the concept that Brahman and Jagat (world) are completely distinct from each other and their tattva is explained in Shri Adishankara Bhashyas. Brahman is Nirguna, without attributes, and is Real; all else is unreal; Jivatma and Paramatma are the same without any difference. According to them the idea of difference arises from Avidya (nescience, ignorance, lack of yadartha jnana) and when Atma transcends Avidya, it brings about the realization of the All-ness and wholeness of the Atman as indicated by the vidya-sutra<blockquote>आत्मेत्येवोपासीतात्र ह्येते सर्व एकं भवन्ति । (Brhd. Upan.1.4.7)<ref>Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_1a Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>The Universe springs from Brahman, just like hairs on a man's head; it is the work of Maya. Cause and effect are one and the same (कार्यकारण-अभेदः) just like an aggregation of threads is seen in the form of a cloth. As long as the Atma identifies itself with the [[Upadhi (उपाधिः)|Upadhis]] (vehicle of atma), it remains bound in Samsara, when it Knows Itself as Self, it becomes free from Samsara. For those who are not yet ready for this effort of Self Knowledge, ritual is not only desirable but also necessary. Those who reached the point where Atma only attracts them, Jnanam is enough and by Sadhana they achieve Brahman, the goal. However, a Jnani does not abstain from Karma or actions (similar as in Samkhya siddhanta), he best understands them and actively engages in them, being unattached to the results and not by the dictate of desire. Such a person is called Jivanmukta.

'''Advaita Vedantins''' totally dismisses the concept that Brahman and Jagat (world) are completely distinct from each other and their tattva is explained in Shri Adishankara Bhashyas. Brahman is Nirguna, without attributes, and is Real; all else is unreal; Jivatma and Paramatma are the same without any difference. According to them the idea of difference arises from Avidya (nescience, ignorance, lack of yadartha jnana) and when Atma transcends Avidya, it brings about the realization of the All-ness and wholeness of the Atman as indicated by the vidya-sutra<blockquote>आत्मेत्येवोपासीतात्र ह्येते सर्व एकं भवन्ति । (Brhd. Upan. 1.4.7)<ref>Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_1a Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>The Universe springs from Brahman, just like hairs on a man's head; it is the work of Maya. Cause and effect are one and the same (कार्यकारण-अभेदः) just like an aggregation of threads is seen in the form of a cloth. As long as the Atma identifies itself with the [[Upadhi (उपाधिः)|Upadhis]] (vehicle of atma), it remains bound in Samsara, when it Knows Itself as Self, it becomes free from Samsara. For those who are not yet ready for this effort of Self Knowledge, ritual is not only desirable but also necessary. Those who reached the point where Atma only attracts them, Jnanam is enough and by Sadhana they achieve Brahman, the goal. However, a Jnani does not abstain from Karma or actions (similar as in Samkhya siddhanta), he best understands them and actively engages in them, being unattached to the results and not by the dictate of desire. Such a person is called Jivanmukta.

For example, Chandogya Upanishad describes the unity of Jiva and Brahman, in the conversation between [[Uddalaka and Shvetaketu (उद्दालकः श्वेतकेतुः च।)|Uddalaka and Shvetaketu]]. Kathopanishad also proclaims that he who sees as though there is difference between the two (Jiva and Brahman) will be engaged in cycle of birth and death. Jnana that they are one and the same is to be attained through the Manas only. There is no diversity between the Jivatma and Supreme Brahman.  (Kath. Upan. 2.1.11)<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) ''[https://archive.org/details/EightUpanishadsWithSankarabhashyamSwamiGambhiranandaVol11989/page/n198 Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya)]'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama</ref>

For example, Chandogya Upanishad describes the unity of Jiva and Brahman, in the conversation between [[Uddalaka and Shvetaketu (उद्दालकः श्वेतकेतुः च।)|Uddalaka and Shvetaketu]]. Kathopanishad also proclaims that he who sees as though there is difference between the two (Jiva and Brahman) will be engaged in cycle of birth and death. Jnana that they are one and the same is to be attained through the Manas only. There is no diversity between the Jivatma and Supreme Brahman.  (Kath. Upan. 2.1.11)<ref>Swami Gambhirananda (1989 Second Edition) ''[https://archive.org/details/EightUpanishadsWithSankarabhashyamSwamiGambhiranandaVol11989/page/n198 Eight Upanishads, Volume 1 (Isa, Kena, Katha,and Taittriya)]'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama</ref>

'''The Vishistadvaita Vedantins''' uphold separateness of Jivatma and Paramatma but that Jivatma is a separate entity which are Vyakta (व्यक्तः । manifested) during the period of activity and when Pralaya (प्रलयः । ) approaches they are drawn in and become Avyakta (अव्यक्तः । Unmanifested) Paramatma or Brahman.  Vishistadvaita is a path for those who conscious of the separation, and long for union with the Supreme, and they find solace in worship and devotion of Ishvara (Saguna Brahman). Brahman is the highest Reality, the One, but has attributes inseparable from Himself. From Brahman, comes the Sankarshana (संकर्षणः) or Jivatma, the separated Atma (soul), which produces Pradyumna (प्रद्युम्नः) the Mind, which in turn produces Aniruddha (अनिरुद्धः) the I (Ahamkara principle). Thus Brahman is the object of worship on whom Jivatma depends on, Jivatma being not Brahman but a part of it. The separation is insisted on but union is sought.<ref name=":0222" />

'''The Vishistadvaita Vedantins''' uphold separateness of Jivatma and Paramatma but that Jivatma is a separate entity which are Vyakta (व्यक्तः । manifested) during the period of activity and when Pralaya (प्रलयः । ) approaches they are drawn in and become Avyakta (अव्यक्तः । Unmanifested) Paramatma or Brahman.  Vishistadvaita is a path for those who conscious of the separation, and long for union with the Supreme, and they find solace in worship and devotion of Ishvara (Saguna Brahman). Brahman is the highest Reality, the One, but has attributes inseparable from Himself. From Brahman, comes the Sankarshana (संकर्षणः) or Jivatma, the separated Atma (soul), which produces Pradyumna (प्रद्युम्नः) the Mind, which in turn produces Aniruddha (अनिरुद्धः) the I (Ahamkara principle). Thus Brahman is the object of worship on whom Jivatma depends on, Jivatma being not Brahman but a part of it. The separation is insisted on but union is sought.<ref name=":0222" />

==Discussion==

 

=== Various Aspects of Brahman ===

 

 

 

===Brahman as a metaphysical concept===

===Brahman as a metaphysical concept===

Brahman is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of [[metaphysics]]: what is ultimately real, and are there principles applying to everything that is real?<ref>Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/metaphysics/ Metaphysics], Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISBN 978-0415073103, Accessed (June 13, 2015)</ref> Brahman is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing" [[Maya (illusion)|Māyā]] in various orthodox Hindu schools. Māyā pre-exists and co-exists with Brahman – the Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal, the Cosmic Principles.<ref name="aegough">Archibald Edward Gough (2001), The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient Bharat's Metaphysics, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415245227, pages 47-48</ref>

Brahman is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of [[metaphysics]]: what is ultimately real, and are there principles applying to everything that is real?<ref>Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/metaphysics/ Metaphysics], Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ISBN 978-0415073103, Accessed (June 13, 2015)</ref> Brahman is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing" [[Maya (illusion)|Māyā]] in various orthodox Hindu schools. Māyā pre-exists and co-exists with Brahman – the Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal, the Cosmic Principles.<ref name="aegough">Archibald Edward Gough (2001), The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient Bharat's Metaphysics, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415245227, pages 47-48</ref>