Changes

* Ashramas in a forest (Kanva and Valmiki)

* Ashramas in a forest (Kanva and Valmiki)

* Outside but close to a village  

* Outside but close to a village  

* Centers of learning and education (Ujjaini, Varanasi, Kanchi, Thanjavur)

* Centers of learning and education (Ujjaini, Varanasi, Kanchi, Thanjavur)

* Agraharas (अग्रहारम्), Gatikas (घटिका) and Tols (तोलः) are villages consisting only of Brahmana scholars.

* Agraharas (अग्रहारम्) and Tols (तोलः) are villages consisting only of Brahmana scholars.

=== गुरुः ॥ Guru or Preceptor ===

=== गुरुः ॥ Guru or Preceptor ===

Among the people of the four varnas, those having the above 5 manyasthanas are said to be the most respectful in the world (मानार्हः).<ref>Pt. Girija Prasad Dvivedi (1917) ''The Manusmriti or Manavadharmashastra (Hindi Translation)'' Lucknow: Nawal Kishore Press ([https://archive.org/details/ManuSmritHindi-GpDwivedi/page/n186 Adhyaya 2 Sloka 136])</ref><ref name=":1">Mm. Ganganath Jha (1920 - 1939) ''Manusmrti with the Manubhashya of Medathithi, English Translation. Volume 3, Part 1 Discourses 1 and 2.'' Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass</ref>

Among the people of the four varnas, those having the above 5 manyasthanas are said to be the most respectful in the world (मानार्हः).<ref>Pt. Girija Prasad Dvivedi (1917) ''The Manusmriti or Manavadharmashastra (Hindi Translation)'' Lucknow: Nawal Kishore Press ([https://archive.org/details/ManuSmritHindi-GpDwivedi/page/n186 Adhyaya 2 Sloka 136])</ref><ref name=":1">Mm. Ganganath Jha (1920 - 1939) ''Manusmrti with the Manubhashya of Medathithi, English Translation. Volume 3, Part 1 Discourses 1 and 2.'' Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass</ref>

Thus we see Gurus held an esteemed position in the society due to their [[Vidya (विद्या)|Vidya]]. Gurukulas were headed by learned Gurus or teachers (आचार्याः) who were also householders. The famous Samavartana or convocation address to students in the Shikshavalli of Taittriya Upanishad, Anuvaka 11 extols the greatness of the Gurus in the life of a human starting with the Mother, then Father, followed by Guru and Atithi; all of them have to be revered as Devatas themselves.<blockquote>मातृदेवो भव । पितृदेवो भव । आचार्यदेवो भव । अतिथिदेवो भव । mātr̥devo bhava । pitr̥devo bhava । ācāryadevo bhava । atithidevo bhava । (Tait. Upan. [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80 Shikshavalli] 11.2)</blockquote>Gurus such as [[Vasishta (वसिष्ठः)|Vasishta]] were associated with the members of the lineage of Ikshvaku and advised them long before Shri Rama was born. So was the case of many such Rshis and Maharshis. A [[Guru (गुरुः)]] is a person who takes charge of immature children and makes them worthy and useful citizens for the society, was naturally held in very high reverence. The preceptor naturally possessed several qualifications. He was expected to be a pious person, with high character, patient, impartial, inspiring and well grounded in his own branch of knowledge; he was to continue his reading throughout his life.<ref name=":0" />

Thus we see Gurus held an esteemed position in the society due to their [[Vidya (विद्या)|Vidya]]. Gurukulas were headed by learned Gurus or teachers (आचार्याः) who were also householders. The famous Samavartana or convocation address to students in the Shikshavalli of Taittriya Upanishad, Anuvaka 11 extols the greatness of the Gurus in the life of a human starting with the Mother, then Father, followed by Guru and Atithi; all of them have to be revered as Devatas themselves.<blockquote>मातृदेवो भव । पितृदेवो भव । आचार्यदेवो भव । अतिथिदेवो भव । mātr̥devo bhava । pitr̥devo bhava । ācāryadevo bhava । atithidevo bhava । (Tait. Upan. [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80 Shikshavalli] 11.2)</blockquote>Gurus such as [[Vasishta (वसिष्ठः)|Vasishta]] were associated with the members of the lineage of Ikshvaku (for 60 generations) and advised them long before Shri Rama was born. So was the case of many such Rshis and Maharshis. A [[Guru (गुरुः)]] is a person who takes charge of immature children and makes them worthy and useful citizens for the society, was naturally held in very high reverence. The preceptor naturally possessed several qualifications. He was expected to be a pious person, with high character, patient, impartial, inspiring and well grounded in his own branch of knowledge; he was to continue his reading throughout his life.<ref name=":0" />

It was the duty of the teacher to teach; all students possessed of the necessary calibre and qualifications were to be taught, without withholding knowledge irrespective of whether the student would be able to pay an honorarium or not. A Guru is the spiritual father of the child and was held as morally responsible for the drawbacks of his pupils. He was to provide food clothing and shelter to the student under his charge and help him get financial help from people of influence in the locality.

It was the duty of the teacher to teach; all students possessed of the necessary calibre and qualifications were to be taught, without withholding knowledge irrespective of whether the student would be able to pay an honorarium or not. A Guru is the spiritual father of the child and was held as morally responsible for the drawbacks of his pupils. He was to provide food clothing and shelter to the student under his charge and help him get financial help from people of influence in the locality.

The student was expected to do personal service to the teacher "like a son, supplaint, or slave". Mahabharata (1.25.11-12) give minute details of how service should be done to the Guru, including carrying his water for bath and cleaning his utensils, tending to cows, bringing samidhas and maintaining the sacred fires.   

The student was expected to do personal service to the teacher "like a son, supplaint, or slave". Mahabharata (1.25.11-12) give minute details of how service should be done to the Guru, including carrying his water for bath and cleaning his utensils, tending to cows, bringing samidhas and maintaining the sacred fires.   

Gopatha Brahmana (1.2.1to8) explains that this Sushurta or service was very prevalent in the Vaidika age and is widely prevalent in later times also. It was a honour to do service to the Guru and it was extolled that no progress in knowledge was possible was possible without doing service in the teacher's house (Maha. Vana 36.52).  

Gopatha Brahmana (1.2.1 to 8) explains that this Sushurta or service was very prevalent in the Vaidika age and is widely prevalent in later times also. It was a honour to do service to the Guru and it was extolled that no progress in knowledge was possible was possible without doing service in the teacher's house (Maha. Vana 36.52).  

Students were always to follow the instructions of the Guru obediently, ought to salute his teacher, ought not to occupy a seat higher than the teacher, never wear a gaudier dress, refrain from reviling and backbiting.

Students were always to follow the instructions of the Guru obediently, ought to salute his teacher, ought not to occupy a seat higher than the teacher, never wear a gaudier dress, refrain from reviling and backbiting.

=== अनध्ययनम् ॥ Anadhyayana or Holidays ===

=== अनध्ययनम् ॥ Anadhyayana or Holidays ===

A systematic list of holidays from studies goes back to very early times and include generally the [[Anadhyayana (अनध्ययनम्)|Anadhyayana]] days of the month which were 6 days in a month - the two astami (eight day) and Chaturdashi (fourteenth day) tithis of the fortnight, the amavasya (new moon day) and purnima (full moon day) days (Manu Smrt. 4.113 and 114). <blockquote>पौर्णमस्य्-अष्टका-अमावास्या-अग्न्युत्पात-भूमिकम्प-श्मशान-देशपति-श्रो त्रिय-एकतीर्थ-प्रयाणेष्व् अहोरात्रम् अनध्यायः ॥ (Baud. Dhar. Sutr. 1.11)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF Baudhyayana Dharmasutras]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''paurṇamasy-aṣṭakā-amāvāsyā-agnyutpāta-bhūmikampa-śmaśāna-deśapati-śro triya-ekatīrtha-prayāṇeṣv ahorātram anadhyāyaḥ ॥''</blockquote>Apart from these at times of robbery in a village, cattle lifting, natural calamities, during thunders and rainstorms, death of the Raja or a Brahmana of the village, arrival of guests and during village celebrations, vedic study is paused. Gradually in due course of time the number of holidays reduced due to the curriculum getting heavier. While abnormal weather conditions prevented loud recitation, silent reading of non-Vedic subjects was allowed. While Vedic study had to be paused, non-Vaidika subjects could be studied on Anadhyayana days.<ref name=":0" />

A systematic list of holidays from studies goes back to very early times and include generally the [[Anadhyayana (अनध्ययनम्)|Anadhyayana]] days of the month which were 6 days in a month - the two astami (eight day) and Chaturdashi (fourteenth day) tithis of the fortnight, the amavasya (new moon day) and purnima (full moon day) days (Manu Smrt. 4.113 and 114). <blockquote>पौर्णमस्य्-अष्टका-अमावास्या-अग्न्युत्पात-भूमिकम्प-श्मशान-देशपति-श्रो त्रिय-एकतीर्थ-प्रयाणेष्व् अहोरात्रम् अनध्यायः ॥ (Baud. Dhar. Sutr. 1.11)<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF Baudhyayana Dharmasutras]</ref></blockquote><blockquote>paurṇamasy-aṣṭakā-amāvāsyā-agnyutpāta-bhūmikampa-śmaśāna-deśapati-śro triya-ekatīrtha-prayāṇeṣv ahorātram anadhyāyaḥ ॥</blockquote>Apart from these at times of robbery in a village, cattle lifting, natural calamities, during thunders and rainstorms, death of the Raja or a Brahmana of the village, arrival of guests and during village celebrations, vedic study is paused. Gradually in due course of time the number of holidays reduced due to the curriculum getting heavier. While abnormal weather conditions prevented loud recitation, silent reading of non-Vedic subjects was allowed. While Vedic study had to be paused, non-Vaidika subjects could be studied on Anadhyayana days.<ref name=":0" />

=== निर्वहणम् ॥ Maintenance of Gurukula ===

=== निर्वहणम् ॥ Maintenance of Gurukula ===

Gurudakshina or the teacher's honorarium became payable only at the end of education and it was not mandatory. [[Samavartana (समावर्तनम्)|Samavartana]] is the convocation, time when the student leaves the Gurukula with the permission of the Guru.     

Gurudakshina or the teacher's honorarium became payable only at the end of education and it was not mandatory. [[Samavartana (समावर्तनम्)|Samavartana]] is the convocation, time when the student leaves the Gurukula with the permission of the Guru.     

Manusmrti says "Being permitted by the guru, one should perform his Samavartana and marry a woman.."  <blockquote>गुरुणानुमतः स्नात्वा समावृत्तो यथाविधि । उद्वहेत द्विजो भार्यां सवर्णां लक्षणान्विताम् । । ३.४ । । (Manu. Smrt. 3.4)<ref name=":2">Manusmrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''guruṇānumataḥ snātvā samāvr̥tto yathāvidhi । udvaheta dvijo bhāryāṁ savarṇāṁ lakṣaṇānvitām । । 3.4 । ।''</blockquote>Up from Upanayana until the student completed his studies he does not pay any thing to the Acharya. Manu lays down that at the time of Samavartana the gurudakshina has to be offered by the student to the Guru.<blockquote>आसमाप्तेः शरीरस्य यस्तु शुश्रूषते गुरुम् । स गच्छत्यञ्जसा विप्रो ब्रह्मणः सद्म शाश्वतम् । । २.२४४ । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.244)<ref>Manusmrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''āsamāpteḥ śarīrasya yastu śuśrūṣate gurum । sa gacchatyañjasā vipro brahmaṇaḥ sadma śāśvatam । । 2.244 । ।''</blockquote>A student who, until the end of his life, does service to his guru attains brahmaloka (moksha).<blockquote>न पूर्वं गुरवे किंचिदुपकुर्वीत धर्मवित् । स्नास्यंस्तु गुरुणाज्ञप्तः शक्त्या गुर्वर्थं आहरेत् । । २.२४५ । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.245)</blockquote><blockquote>''na pūrvaṁ gurave kiṁcidupakurvīta dharmavit । snāsyaṁstu guruṇājñaptaḥ śaktyā gurvarthaṁ āharet । । 2.245 । ।''</blockquote>A dharmik brahmachari, does not give anything to the guru before he completes his education. Just after Samavartana, with the permission of the Guru and according to his capacity, a student should offer Gurudakshina. Agricultural land, gold, cow, horse, umbrella, shoes, chair (asana), food grains, vegetables and clothes may be offered to the guru and win his pleasure.<ref name=":12">Pandey, Rajbali. (2002 Reprint) ''Hindu Samskaras : Socio-Religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments.'' Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref><ref>Pt. Girija Prasad Dvivedi (1917) ''The Manusmriti or Manavadharmashastra (Hindi Translation)'' Lucknow: Nawal Kishore Press ([https://archive.org/details/ManuSmritHindi-GpDwivedi/page/n203 Adhyaya 2 Slokas 244 to 246])</ref><blockquote>क्षेत्रं हिरण्यं गां अश्वं छत्रोपानहं आसनम् । धान्यं शाकं च वासांसि गुरवे प्रीतिमावहेत् । । २.२४६ । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.246)</blockquote><blockquote>''kṣetraṁ hiraṇyaṁ gāṁ aśvaṁ chatropānahaṁ āsanam । dhānyaṁ śākaṁ ca vāsāṁsi gurave prītimāvahet । । 2.246 । ।''</blockquote>The services rendered by the teacher to the student were highly respected and none could pay too much for them. Even the earth containing the seven continents was not sufficient for the gurudakshina.<ref name=":12" />

Manusmrti says "Being permitted by the guru, one should perform his Samavartana and marry a woman.."  <blockquote>गुरुणानुमतः स्नात्वा समावृत्तो यथाविधि । उद्वहेत द्विजो भार्यां सवर्णां लक्षणान्विताम् । । ३.४ । । (Manu. Smrt. 3.4)<ref name=":2">Manusmrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 3])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>guruṇānumataḥ snātvā samāvr̥tto yathāvidhi । udvaheta dvijo bhāryāṁ savarṇāṁ lakṣaṇānvitām । । 3.4 । ।</blockquote>Up from Upanayana until the student completed his studies he does not pay any thing to the Acharya. Manu lays down that at the time of Samavartana the gurudakshina has to be offered by the student to the Guru.<blockquote>आसमाप्तेः शरीरस्य यस्तु शुश्रूषते गुरुम् । स गच्छत्यञ्जसा विप्रो ब्रह्मणः सद्म शाश्वतम् । । २.२४४ । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.244)<ref>Manusmrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>āsamāpteḥ śarīrasya yastu śuśrūṣate gurum । sa gacchatyañjasā vipro brahmaṇaḥ sadma śāśvatam । । 2.244 । ।</blockquote>A student who, until the end of his life, does service to his guru attains brahmaloka (moksha).<blockquote>न पूर्वं गुरवे किंचिदुपकुर्वीत धर्मवित् । स्नास्यंस्तु गुरुणाज्ञप्तः शक्त्या गुर्वर्थं आहरेत् । । २.२४५ । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.245)</blockquote><blockquote>na pūrvaṁ gurave kiṁcidupakurvīta dharmavit । snāsyaṁstu guruṇājñaptaḥ śaktyā gurvarthaṁ āharet । । 2.245 । ।</blockquote>A dharmik brahmachari, does not give anything to the guru before he completes his education. Just after Samavartana, with the permission of the Guru and according to his capacity, a student should offer Gurudakshina. Agricultural land, gold, cow, horse, umbrella, shoes, chair (asana), food grains, vegetables and clothes may be offered to the guru and win his pleasure.<ref name=":12">Pandey, Rajbali. (2002 Reprint) ''Hindu Samskaras : Socio-Religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments.'' Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref><ref>Pt. Girija Prasad Dvivedi (1917) ''The Manusmriti or Manavadharmashastra (Hindi Translation)'' Lucknow: Nawal Kishore Press ([https://archive.org/details/ManuSmritHindi-GpDwivedi/page/n203 Adhyaya 2 Slokas 244 to 246])</ref><blockquote>क्षेत्रं हिरण्यं गां अश्वं छत्रोपानहं आसनम् । धान्यं शाकं च वासांसि गुरवे प्रीतिमावहेत् । । २.२४६ । । (Manu. Smrt. 2.246)</blockquote><blockquote>kṣetraṁ hiraṇyaṁ gāṁ aśvaṁ chatropānahaṁ āsanam । dhānyaṁ śākaṁ ca vāsāṁsi gurave prītimāvahet । । 2.246 । ।</blockquote>The services rendered by the teacher to the student were highly respected and none could pay too much for them. Even the earth containing the seven continents was not sufficient for the gurudakshina.<ref name=":12" />

Payment of fees as a condition for admission was never a stipulation in the sacred texts. No student could be refused admission even by a private teacher simply because he was too poor to pay any fees. Teaching was a sacred duty and Smrtis condemned payment of stipulated fees as a condition precedent to admission. Gurudakshina was however acceptable form of payment either in monetary and service forms; a poor student could pay for his education by doing service to the Guru which became more common in the post vedic age.<ref name=":0" />   

Payment of fees as a condition for admission was never a stipulation in the sacred texts. No student could be refused admission even by a private teacher simply because he was too poor to pay any fees. Teaching was a sacred duty and Smrtis condemned payment of stipulated fees as a condition precedent to admission. Gurudakshina was however acceptable form of payment either in monetary and service forms; a poor student could pay for his education by doing service to the Guru which became more common in the post vedic age.<ref name=":0" />   

Voluntary gifts from the guardians or parents of the child was not prevented. Shri Krishna's paid gurudakshina to his teacher Sandipani in the form of bringing back his lost child. Similarly, Arjuna defeated Drupada Maharaja as gurudakshina after his education, for Dronacharya his Guru. So gurudakshina never was just monetary, it was in various forms and also depended on what the Guru may what apart from gold or land.  

Voluntary gifts from the guardians or parents of the child was not prevented. Shri Krishna's paid gurudakshina to his teacher Sandipani in the form of bringing back his lost child. Similarly, Arjuna defeated Drupada Maharaja as gurudakshina after his education, for Dronacharya his Guru. So gurudakshina never was just monetary, it was in various forms and also depended on what the Guru may want apart from gold or land.  

{{Box-round|title=Shri Krishna's Panchajanya conch...|content=Shri Krishna's education started after he killed Kamsa. According to Bhagavata Purana (Skanda 10 Adhyaya 45) desirous of having education in a Gurukula both of them approached Sandipani (of Kashyapa Gotra) resident of Avanti and served him.

{{Box-round|title=Shri Krishna's Panchajanya conch...|content=Shri Krishna's education started after he killed Kamsa. According to Bhagavata Purana (Skanda 10 Adhyaya 45) desirous of having education in a Gurukula both of them approached Sandipani (of Kashyapa Gotra) resident of Avanti and served him.