Changes

However, '''Vishnupurana'''<ref name=":12">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref> enumerates the existence of 18 vidyasthanas by adding [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)]], [[Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)]], [[Gandharvaveda (गान्धर्ववेदः)]] and [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)]] (four Upavedas) to the previously explained 14 vidyasthanas as given in the following shlokas.<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः। पुराणं धर्मशास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुर्दश ॥ २८ ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ। purāṇaṃ dharmaśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścaturdaśa ॥ 28 ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चेत्यनुक्रमात् । अर्थशास्त्रं परं तस्मात् विद्या ह्यष्टादश स्मृताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvedo dhanurvedo gāndharvaścetyanukramāt । arthaśāstraṃ paraṃ tasmāt vidyā hyaṣṭādaśa smṛtāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>'''Bhavishya Purana (Brahma Parva 1.2.6)'''<ref>Bhavishya Purana (Brahma Parva 1 [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5)/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 2])</ref> also describes the 14 Vidyas and 18 vidyas as given above.  

However, '''Vishnupurana'''<ref name=":12">Vishnupurana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D-%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Amsha 3 Adhyaya 6])</ref> enumerates the existence of 18 vidyasthanas by adding [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)]], [[Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः)]], [[Gandharvaveda (गान्धर्ववेदः)]] and [[Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्)]] (four Upavedas) to the previously explained 14 vidyasthanas as given in the following shlokas.<blockquote>अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः। पुराणं धर्मशास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुर्दश ॥ २८ ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ। purāṇaṃ dharmaśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścaturdaśa ॥ 28 ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)</blockquote><blockquote>आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चेत्यनुक्रमात् । अर्थशास्त्रं परं तस्मात् विद्या ह्यष्टादश स्मृताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote><blockquote>āyurvedo dhanurvedo gāndharvaścetyanukramāt । arthaśāstraṃ paraṃ tasmāt vidyā hyaṣṭādaśa smṛtāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)</blockquote>'''Bhavishya Purana (Brahma Parva 1.2.6)'''<ref>Bhavishya Purana (Brahma Parva 1 [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5)/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 2])</ref> also describes the 14 Vidyas and 18 vidyas as given above.  

== वेदान्तविद्या विषयाः ॥ Vidyas in Vedanta ==

== वेदान्तविद्या विषयः ॥ Subject matter of Vedanta Vidya ==

A considerable portion of the major Upanishads is devoted to the Upasanas or meditative exercises which are called Vidyas. A good number of these Vidyas in the sense of in-depth higher level of learning are discussed in all the 12 Mukhya Upanishads (three of them more important Upanishads namely, Chandogya, Brhdaranyaka and Taittriya Upanishads) and in the Vedanta Sutras or Brahmasutras. The Upanishads mention them in different places while in the Vedanta Sutras, Adhyaya 3, Pada 3 takes them up together and discusses them. Practice of these Vidyas have been seen in relation to yajnas and some of them yield Kamyaphala (fruits of yajna) as have been given in Sutra 3.3.60. Hence some of these Vidyas are also called Kamya Vidyas. Shri Adi Shankaracharya in his bhasyas interprets these Vidyas as practical exercises of meditation. Also called as Brahmavidya, 32 such Vidyas have been given.<ref>Aiyar, Narayanaswami K., (1919 First Edition) ''The Thirty-two Vidyas. Madras:'' The Adyar Library and Research Center</ref>

A considerable portion of the major Upanishads is devoted to the Upasanas or meditative exercises which are called Vidyas. A good number of these Vidyas in the sense of in-depth higher level of learning are discussed in all the 12 Mukhya Upanishads (three of them more important Upanishads namely, Chandogya, Brhdaranyaka and Taittriya Upanishads) and in the Vedanta Sutras or Brahmasutras. The Upanishads mention them in different places while in the Vedanta Sutras, Adhyaya 3, Pada 3 takes them up together and discusses them. Practice of these Vidyas have been seen in relation to yajnas and some of them yield Kamyaphala (fruits of yajna) as have been given in Sutra 3.3.60. Hence some of these Vidyas are also called Kamya Vidyas. Shri Adi Shankaracharya in his bhasyas interprets these Vidyas as practical exercises of meditation. Also called as Brahmavidya, 32 such Vidyas have been given.<ref>Aiyar, Narayanaswami K., (1919 First Edition) ''The Thirty-two Vidyas. Madras:'' The Adyar Library and Research Center</ref>

Udgita and Purushavidya (पुरुषविद्या) are two others that have been described.

Udgita and Purushavidya (पुरुषविद्या) are two others that have been described.

== लौकिकविद्या विषयाः ॥ Subject Matter of Vidya ==

== अपराविद्या विषयः ॥ Subject Matter of Apara Vidya ==

Chaturdasha Vidyastanas which included the Vedas and their Vedangas were  the chief subjects during the earliest times. Vidya (knowledge), pertaining to a single knowledge system (Brahmavidya etc) of the olden days gradually got absorbed into Vedanta system, a broader heading covering all such specialized topics. Gradually as studying vedas required more understanding, the study of Shad Vedangas became important. It is to be noted that the subjects explaining the Vedas themselves gained more significance and subsequently were studied independent of the Vedas themselves. Some of the Vedangas such as Shiksha, Vyakarana, Jyotisha, became highly specialized by themselves and needed years of study excluding the Vedic studies.  

Chaturdasha Vidyastanas which included the Vedas and their Vedangas were  the chief subjects during the earliest times. Vidya (knowledge), pertaining to a single knowledge system (Brahmavidya etc) of the olden days gradually got absorbed into Vedanta system, a broader heading covering all such specialized topics. Gradually as studying vedas required more understanding, the study of Shad Vedangas became important. It is to be noted that the subjects explaining the Vedas themselves gained more significance and subsequently were studied independent of the Vedas themselves. Some of the Vedangas such as Shiksha, Vyakarana, Jyotisha, became highly specialized by themselves and needed years of study excluding the Vedic studies.  

Social fabric was well-knit in our ancient society system (Varna System) and different classes of people complemented each other in bringing about social efficiency. Thus ancient Indian education provided education to each class, suitable for its own needs and family traditions, without repressing talent, unlike the Soviet nations' system of education which directed education to bring about equality in the society by upliftment of the weaker sections. Modern education system in India brought in by the English Colonial rulers is dominated by the aim of passing examinations with highest honours; an aim which was practically non-existent in ancient India.<ref name=":0" />

Social fabric was well-knit in our ancient society system (Varna System) and different classes of people complemented each other in bringing about social efficiency. Thus ancient Indian education provided education to each class, suitable for its own needs and family traditions, without repressing talent, unlike the Soviet nations' system of education which directed education to bring about equality in the society by upliftment of the weaker sections. Modern education system in India brought in by the English Colonial rulers is dominated by the aim of passing examinations with highest honours; an aim which was practically non-existent in ancient India.<ref name=":0" />

With this significant background about the ancient education system of India, we now look into that unique Guru-shisya parampara maintained by the Gurukula system of education, which has shaped Bharat's young minds from ages and the need to continue the system even in the present day. In the following section we discuss the qualities of the Guru and shishya who are the primary persons of the Gurukula system. 

With this significant background about the ancient education system of India, we now look into that unique Guru-shisya parampara maintained by the Gurukula system of education, which has shaped Bharat's young minds from ages and the need to continue the system even in the present day. In the following sections we discuss about the various aspects of the educational system.  

==Preceptors of Education==

==Preceptors of Education==

Sanatana Dharma has held a high regard for the preceptors, the seers who imparted knowledge and were founders of a lineage of students. Whether living in recluse in forests or in cities or Gurukulas, shaping the future generations had always rested on the shoulders of Gurus and Acharyas. In this section we discuss the most common yet significant terms used in Sanatana Dharma regarding those who impart and seek knowledge and the associated samskaras. It is unfortunate that such sacred terms such as Guru are loosely used in society in the present days.

Sanatana Dharma has held a high regard for the preceptors, the seers who imparted knowledge and were founders of a lineage of students. Whether living in recluse in forests or in cities or Gurukulas, shaping the future generations had always rested on the shoulders of Gurus and Acharyas. In this section we discuss the most common yet significant terms used in Sanatana Dharma regarding those who impart and seek knowledge and the associated samskaras. It is unfortunate that such sacred terms such as Guru are loosely used in society in the present days.

An Acharya is one who follows what he preaches. A brief compilation of various definitions of Acharya from different texts are given below.

An Acharya is one who follows what he preaches. A brief compilation of various definitions of Acharya from different texts are given below.

'''Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana''' <blockquote>वृद्धा ह्यलोलुपाश्चैव आत्मवन्तो ह्यदम्भकाः। सम्यग्विनीता ऋजवस्तानाचार्यान् प्रचक्षते ।। ५९.२९ ।। </blockquote><blockquote>आचिनोति च शास्त्रार्थम् आचारे स्थापयत्यपि । स्वयमाचरते यस्मात् आचार्यस्तेन चोच्यते ॥  (Vayu. Pura. 59. 29-30)<ref>Vayu Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%AF Purvardha Adhyaya 59])</ref></blockquote>The summary of the Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana (Brah. Pura. 1.2.32.31)<ref>Brahmanda Purana (Purvabhaga, Anushangapada, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 32])</ref> slokas are as follows

 

'''Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana'''<blockquote>वृद्धा ह्यलोलुपाश्चैव आत्मवन्तो ह्यदम्भकाः। सम्यग्विनीता ऋजवस्तानाचार्यान् प्रचक्षते ।। ५९.२९ ।। </blockquote><blockquote>आचिनोति च शास्त्रार्थम् आचारे स्थापयत्यपि । स्वयमाचरते यस्मात् आचार्यस्तेन चोच्यते ॥  (Vayu. Pura. 59. 29-30)<ref>Vayu Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB%E0%A5%AF Purvardha Adhyaya 59])</ref></blockquote>The summary of the Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana (Brah. Pura. 1.2.32.31)<ref>Brahmanda Purana (Purvabhaga, Anushangapada, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 32])</ref> slokas are as follows

They call these persons Acharyas - wise men devoid of greediness, who are self-possessed and devoid of arrogance, straight-forward and who are educated and self disciplined.<ref name=":5">Tagare, G. V. (1987 First Edition) The Vayu Purana, Part 1. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Pvt. Ltd. ([https://archive.org/details/VayuPuranaG.V.TagarePart1/page/n482 Page 421])</ref><ref name=":4">Tagare, G. V. (1958 First Edition) The Brahmanda Purana, Part 1. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Pvt. Ltd. ([https://archive.org/details/BrahmandaPuranaG.V.TagarePart1/page/n317 Page 316 and 317])</ref>

They call these persons Acharyas - wise men devoid of greediness, who are self-possessed and devoid of arrogance, straight-forward and who are educated and self disciplined.<ref name=":5">Tagare, G. V. (1987 First Edition) The Vayu Purana, Part 1. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Pvt. Ltd. ([https://archive.org/details/VayuPuranaG.V.TagarePart1/page/n482 Page 421])</ref><ref name=":4">Tagare, G. V. (1958 First Edition) The Brahmanda Purana, Part 1. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Pvt. Ltd. ([https://archive.org/details/BrahmandaPuranaG.V.TagarePart1/page/n317 Page 316 and 317])</ref>

=== ब्रह्मचारी ॥ Brahmachari ===

=== ब्रह्मचारी ॥ Brahmachari ===

Manu (2.174 and 175) broadly defines a Brahmachari as follows<ref>Pt. Girija Prasad Dvivedi. (1917) ''The Manusmriti or Manavadharmashastra. Translated into Hindi with notes, index and critical introductions.'' Lucknow : Newul Kishore Press. ([https://archive.org/details/ManuSmritHindi-GpDwivedi/page/n192 Adhyaya 2 Page 53])</ref>. <blockquote>यद्यस्य विहितं चर्म यत् सूत्रं या च मेखला । यो दण्डो यच्च वसनं तत्तदस्य व्रतेष्वपि ॥</blockquote><blockquote>सेवेतेमांस्तु नियमान् ब्रह्मचारी गुरौ वसन् । सन्नियम्येन्द्रियग्रामं तपोवृद्ध्यर्थमात्मनः ॥</blockquote>After upanayana the child undertakes the (brahmacharya) vrata and learns veda according to the injunctions laid down. Only that person who has during the upanayana worn the skin (चर्म), the girdle (मेखला), the sutra (सूत्रं yajnopaveeta) and staff (दण्डः) undertakes the vrata. Following the niyamas a brahmachari resides along with the Guru and increases his tapas by controlling his senses.  

Manu (2.174 and 175) broadly defines a Brahmachari as follows<ref>Pt. Girija Prasad Dvivedi. (1917) ''The Manusmriti or Manavadharmashastra. Translated into Hindi with notes, index and critical introductions.'' Lucknow : Newul Kishore Press. ([https://archive.org/details/ManuSmritHindi-GpDwivedi/page/n192 Adhyaya 2 Page 53])</ref>. <blockquote>यद्यस्य विहितं चर्म यत् सूत्रं या च मेखला । यो दण्डो यच्च वसनं तत्तदस्य व्रतेष्वपि ॥</blockquote><blockquote>सेवेतेमांस्तु नियमान् ब्रह्मचारी गुरौ वसन् । सन्नियम्येन्द्रियग्रामं तपोवृद्ध्यर्थमात्मनः ॥</blockquote>After upanayana one who undertakes the (brahmacharya) vrata and learns veda according to the injunctions laid down, only that person who has during the upanayana, having worn the skin (चर्म), the girdle (मेखला), the sutra (सूत्रं yajnopaveeta) and staff (दण्डः) undertakes the vrata (is a brahmachari). Following the niyamas a brahmachari resides along with the Guru and increases his tapas by controlling his senses.  

Such a child is said to have been initiated into [[Brahmacharyashrama (ब्रह्मचर्याश्रमः)|Brahmacharyashrama]] with a chief goal of shastra adhyayana and has to follow the rules laid down for them.

Such a child is said to have been initiated into [[Brahmacharyashrama (ब्रह्मचर्याश्रमः)|Brahmacharyashrama]] with a chief goal of shastra adhyayana and has to follow the rules laid down for them.

=== स्नातकः ॥ Snataka ===

=== स्नातकः ॥ Snataka ===

: वेदाध्ययनानन्तरं गार्हस्थ्याय कृतसमावर्त्तनांङ्गस्नाने गृहस्थभेदे तच्च व्रतं मिता।<ref>Vachaspatyam ( [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%95 See Snataka (स्नातक)])</ref>

: वेदाध्ययनानन्तरं गार्हस्थ्याय कृतसमावर्त्तनांङ्गस्नाने गृहस्थभेदे तच्च व्रतं मिता।<ref>Vachaspatyam ( [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%95 See Snataka (स्नातक)])</ref>

It refers to one who, after having completed the study of Vedas, for entering the Grhasthashrama, has performed the rite of Samavartana which is an abulation that indicates the graduation from brahmacharya to grhastha.

[[Snataka (स्नातकः)|Snataka]] refers to one who, after having completed the study of Vedas, for entering the Grhasthashrama, has performed the rite of Samavartana which is an abulation that indicates the graduation from brahmacharya to grhastha.

 

 

Samskaras related to education are those activities prescribed by the vaidika and dharmika texts to prepare a young mind to receive the vast knowledge and perform the required vaidika rites.  

== Samskaras associated with Education ==

=== Upanayana ===

Upanayana

One of the important Samskaras, [[Upanayana (उपनयनम्)|Upanayana]] signifies the transition of a child to a student. It literally means taking the student to a teacher in order to hand him over to the latter for his education. This samskara was performed at the time a student commenced his vaidika vidya under the guidance of an Acharya with whom he is to live until his education is complete. The first guru of a child is the mother followed by the father who teaches him worldly knowledge until a long time. Usually for higher knowledge children were sent to learn from a scholarly person. Smritis give a detailed set of rules about the different aspects of Upanayana for different varnas. Gradually as vedic studies fell into the background, Upanayana samskara has gone out of vogue among the Kshatriya and Vaishya communities and remained only for the Brahmanas.

== Terms related to Study ==

== Terms related to Study ==