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Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्) (view source)
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The Six Darsanas (Shad Darshanas, Sanskrit षड्दर्शनानि) are the intellectual section of the Hindu writings. They are schools of philosophy based on the Vedas. <ref name=":0">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 47-51</ref>
<blockquote>कणादेन तु संप्रोक्तं शास्त्रं वैशेषिकं महत् । गौतमेन तथा न्यायं सांख्यं तु कपिलेन वै ॥<ref>Padma Purana</ref> </blockquote><blockquote>kaṇādena tu saṃproktaṃ śāstraṃ vaiśeṣikaṃ mahat । gautamena tathā nyāyaṃ sāṃkhyaṃ tu kapilena vai ॥ </blockquote>Meaning : The great Vaisheshika shastra has been given by Kanada, while the Nyaya shastra was elucidated by Gautama Rishi, and Sankhya shastra was by Kapila Rishi.
These are the six systems of Hindu philosophy which are known as Shad Darsanas. They are:
# न्यायः || Nyaya (Rishi Gautama)
# वैशेषिकः || Vaiseshika (Rishi Kanada)
# साङ्ख्यः || Samkhya (Kapila Muni)
# योगः || Yoga (Maharishi Patanjali)
# पूर्वमीमांसा || Poorva Mimamsa (Jaimini)
# उत्तरमीमांसा || Uttara Mimamsa or वेदान्त || Vedanta (Badrayana or Vyasa)
The six heterodox systems of philosophy are<ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 186</ref>:
# The Materialistic School of Charvaka
# The System of the Jainas
# The School of Presentationists or Vaibhashikas (Buddhistic)
# The School of Representationists or Sautrantikas (Buddhistic)
# The School of Idealism or Yogacharas (Buddhistic)
# The School of Nihilism or the Madhyamikas (Buddhistic).
When the term Shad Darsanas is employed, it means the six Astika Darsanas. In this article these six orthodox (Astika) systems will be discussed.
== Detailed Discussion ==
Indian Philosophy has six Aastika schools called the Shad-darsana--the six ways of seeing things, the six different schools of thought. The six schools of philosophy are six demonstrations of Truth. Each school has developed, systematised and correlated the various parts of the Veda in its own way. Each system has its Sutrakara, i.e. the one great Rishi, who systematised the doctrines of the school and put them in short aphorisms or Sutras.<ref name=":0" /> The Sutras are terse and laconic. The Rishis have condensed their thoughts in the aphorisms. It is very difficult to understand them without the help of commentaries by great sages or Rishis. Hence, there arose many commentators or Bhashyakaras. These [[Bhashya|Bhashyas]] are glosses, notes and commentaries on the original commentaries.
=== न्यायः || Nyaya Darsana ===
Rishi Gautama was the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy. The word Nyaya signifies going into a subject, i.e., investigating it analytically. In this sense of analysis, the word Nyaya is exactly opposed to Sankhya, synthesis. The Nyaya is sometimes called Tarka-Vidya or the Science of Debate, Vada-Vidya or the Science of Discussion. Tarka is the special feature of the Nyaya. Nyaya is not merely formal logic, but a complete epistemology. Logic is merely one part or a single topic under Nyayya Darsana.<ref name=":1">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 190-196</ref> Nyaya Sutra by Gautama is the first work on Nyaya Darsana. This is the most famous book of this school. Numerous commentaries. have been written on this book by various authors viz. Nyaya-Bhashya by Vatsyayana, Nyayalankara by Shrikantha, Nyaya-Manjari by Jayanta, Nyaya-Bodhini by Govardhana, Nyaya-Varttika-Tatparya-Tika by Vachaspati Misra.
==== Nyaya—A Method of Philosophical Enquiry ====
The purpose of Nyaya is critical examination of the objects of knowledge by means of the canons of logical proof. The Nyaya system deals critically with metaphysical problems. It contains discussions on psychology, logic, metaphysics and theology. The Nyaya is intended to furnish a correct method of philosophical enquiry into all the objects and subjects of human knowledge, including the process of reasoning and laws of thought. The evidence of the senses is submitted to a critical enquiry. The Nyaya gives a description of the mechanism of knowledge in detail.<ref name=":1" />
Nyaya is the basis of all Sanskrit philosophical studies. It is an introduction to all systematic philosophy. It is the preliminary course for a student of Philosophy. A study of the Nyaya Darsana develops the power of reasoning or arguing.<ref name=":1" />
==== Discussion of Certain Metaphysical Concepts under Nyaya Darsana<ref name=":1" /> ====
'''1. Knowledge'''<ref name=":1" />
Knowledge implies four conditions:
# The subject or the Pramata, the cogniser
# The object or the Prameya (प्रमेय)
# The resulting state of cognition or Pramiti
# The means of knowledge or the Pramana
The Prameya, or the objects of which right knowledge to be obtained, are twelve, viz.,
{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* [[Soul (Atman)]]
* [[Body (Sarira)]]
* [[Senses (Indriyas)]]
* [[Objects of senses (Artha)]]
* [[Intellect (Buddhi)]]
* [[Mind (Manas)]]
* [[Activity (Pravritti)]]
* [[Fault (Dosha)]]
* [[Transmigration (Pretyabhava)]]
* [[Fruit (Phala)]]
* [[Pain (Dukha]]
* [[Salvation (Apavarga)]]
}}
The Pramanas or the means of right knowledge are:
# Perception (Pratyaksha)
# Inference (Anumana)
# Comparison (Upamana)
# Word, or verbal testimony (Sabda)
Sabda, or verbal testimony, includes Vedic revelation. Pratyaksha is perception by the senses.
'''2. God'''<ref name=":1" />
Nyaya Darsana says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called Adrishta, under the control of God. God supervises the work of Adrishta. God does not alter the course of Adrishta but renders its operation possible. God is the bestower of the fruits of actions of human beings. God is a Special Soul endowed with omnipotence and omniscience, by which He guides and regulates world. God is a Personal Being. He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge), Adharma (demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge), Ichcha (desire) and Prayatna (volitional effort). God is One, Creator, who is endowed with Nitya Jnana (eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu (all-pervading).
'''3. The Soul'''<ref name=":1" />
The soul is a real being. It is an eternal entity. Desire, aversion, volition, pleasure, pain, intelligence and cognition are its qualities. The object of the notion of "I" is the soul. No cognition or recollection is possible without a soul. The eye cannot see objects and the ear cannot hear sounds without a soul. There should be an agent to use the instruments (senses). That agent is the soul. After an object is seen, even if both the eyes are destroyed, the knowledge that I have seen remains. This knowledge is not a quality of either the objects or the senses. The mind is not the soul. It is only an instrument of the soul, by means of which it thinks. The self is the subject. The soul exists even when the body perishes, the senses are cut off and the mind is controlled. There are infinite numbers of souls.
'''4. The Universe'''<ref name=":1" />
The universe is a composite of eternal, unalterable, causeless atoms, and it exists independently of our thoughts. The universe is the modification of the atoms (Paramanus) of the physical elements: '''Earth (Prithvi), Water (Apas), Fire (Tejas) and Air (Vayu)'''. The Nyaya Darsana admits nine objects (Dravyas), viz., Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Ether, Time, Space (Quarters), Mind and the Self (Atman).
'''5. Cause of Bondage and the Means to Emancipation'''<ref name=":1" />
Misapprehension (Mithya-Jnana), faults (Dosha), activity (Pravritti), birth (Janma) and pain (Duhkha) constitute the world. False notion or false knowledge is at the root of all misery and pain. From Mithya-Jnana or false notion comes the fault of like and dislike (Raga-Dvesha); from Raga-Devesha proceeds Karma or action—virtuous or vicious—which forces a man to pass through repeated births for the sake of its reward or punishment. From these births proceed misery and pain. It is the aim of philosophy to eradicate the false notion or Mithya-Jnana which is at the root of all miseries and pains. On the successive annihilation of misapprehension, faults, activity, birth and pain, there follows release (Apavarga).
'''6. The Sixteen Categories'''<ref name=":1" />
One can remove misapprehension or false knowledge and attain supreme felicity by the true knowledge of the sixteen categories. The sixteen categories are: means of right knowledge (Pramana), object of right knowledge (Prameya), doubt (Samsaya), purpose (Prayojana), familiar instance (Drishtanta), established tenet (Siddhanta), members (Avayava), argumentation (Tarka), ascertainment (Nirnaya), discussion (Vada) wrangling (Jalpa), cavil (Vitanda), fallacy (Hetvabhasa), quibble (Chala), futility (Jati), and occasion for rebuke (Nigraha-sthana).
There is, first, the state of '''Samsaya''' or doubt about the point to be discussed. Next comes the '''Prayojana''' or motive for discussing it. Next follows a '''Drishtanta''' or example Which leads to the '''Siddhanta''' or established conclusion. Then comes the objector with his '''Avayava''' or argument, split up into five members. Next follows the '''Tarka''' or refutation, and the '''Nirnaya''' or ascertainment of the true state of the case. A further '''Vada''' or controversy takes place, which leads to '''Jalpa''' or mere wrangling. This is followed by '''Vitanda''' or cavilling, Hetvabhasa or fallacious reasoning, and Nigraha-sthana, the putting an end to all discussions by a demonstration of the objector's incapacity for argument.
When one attains the true knowledge, his faults viz. affection (Raga), aversion (Dvesha) and stupidity (Moha) vanish. Aversion includes anger, envy, malice and hatred. Attachment includes lust, greed, avidity and covetousness. Stupidity includes suspicion, conceit, carelessness and misapprehension. Stupidity generates dislike and attachment. One must put an end to the chain which begins with misapprehension or false knowledge and ends with pain. If false knowledge vanishes, faults disappear. If faults vanish, one is freed from activity and consequent transmigration and pains.
Transmigration, which consists of the soul's leaving one body and taking another, is the cause of its undergoing pleasure and pain. A soul which is no longer subject to transmigration is freed from all pains. The soul attains release as soon as there is an end to the body, and consequently to pleasure and pain.
'''7. The State of Apavarga or Release'''<ref name=":1" />
Apavarga, or release, is absolute deliverance from pain. It is freedom from pain. It is cessation of pain. It is not the enjoyment of positive pleasure. It is not annihilation of the self. It is destruction of bondage. Release from the twenty-one kinds of pain or Duhkha is liberation (Moksha). In the state of release, there is no connection of mind with the Atman. The Atman is destitute of desire, effort, merit, demerit, hatred, mental impressions, etc., in the state of liberation, as, then, there is no mind. The liberation (Moksha) of the Naiyayikas is a state of painless, and passionless existence.
==== Similarities Between Nyaya and Vaiseshika<ref name=":1" /> ====
The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are analytic types of philosophy. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika explore the significance of time, space, cause, matter, mind, soul and knowledge for experience, and give the results in the form of a theory of the universe. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are regarded as parts of one whole. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. They are allied systems. They both believe in a Personal God, a plurality of souls and an atomic universe. Further, they use many arguments in common.<ref name=":1" />
वैशेषिकः || Vaiseshika Darsana
साङ्ख्यः || Samkhya (Kapila Muni)
योगः || Yoga (Maharishi Patanjali)
पूर्वमीमांसा || Poorva Mimamsa (Jaimini)
उत्तरमीमांसा || Uttara Mimamsa or वेदान्त || Vedanta (Badrayana or Vyasa)
==References==
<references/>
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
<blockquote>कणादेन तु संप्रोक्तं शास्त्रं वैशेषिकं महत् । गौतमेन तथा न्यायं सांख्यं तु कपिलेन वै ॥<ref>Padma Purana</ref> </blockquote><blockquote>kaṇādena tu saṃproktaṃ śāstraṃ vaiśeṣikaṃ mahat । gautamena tathā nyāyaṃ sāṃkhyaṃ tu kapilena vai ॥ </blockquote>Meaning : The great Vaisheshika shastra has been given by Kanada, while the Nyaya shastra was elucidated by Gautama Rishi, and Sankhya shastra was by Kapila Rishi.
These are the six systems of Hindu philosophy which are known as Shad Darsanas. They are:
# न्यायः || Nyaya (Rishi Gautama)
# वैशेषिकः || Vaiseshika (Rishi Kanada)
# साङ्ख्यः || Samkhya (Kapila Muni)
# योगः || Yoga (Maharishi Patanjali)
# पूर्वमीमांसा || Poorva Mimamsa (Jaimini)
# उत्तरमीमांसा || Uttara Mimamsa or वेदान्त || Vedanta (Badrayana or Vyasa)
The six heterodox systems of philosophy are<ref>Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 186</ref>:
# The Materialistic School of Charvaka
# The System of the Jainas
# The School of Presentationists or Vaibhashikas (Buddhistic)
# The School of Representationists or Sautrantikas (Buddhistic)
# The School of Idealism or Yogacharas (Buddhistic)
# The School of Nihilism or the Madhyamikas (Buddhistic).
When the term Shad Darsanas is employed, it means the six Astika Darsanas. In this article these six orthodox (Astika) systems will be discussed.
== Detailed Discussion ==
Indian Philosophy has six Aastika schools called the Shad-darsana--the six ways of seeing things, the six different schools of thought. The six schools of philosophy are six demonstrations of Truth. Each school has developed, systematised and correlated the various parts of the Veda in its own way. Each system has its Sutrakara, i.e. the one great Rishi, who systematised the doctrines of the school and put them in short aphorisms or Sutras.<ref name=":0" /> The Sutras are terse and laconic. The Rishis have condensed their thoughts in the aphorisms. It is very difficult to understand them without the help of commentaries by great sages or Rishis. Hence, there arose many commentators or Bhashyakaras. These [[Bhashya|Bhashyas]] are glosses, notes and commentaries on the original commentaries.
=== न्यायः || Nyaya Darsana ===
Rishi Gautama was the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy. The word Nyaya signifies going into a subject, i.e., investigating it analytically. In this sense of analysis, the word Nyaya is exactly opposed to Sankhya, synthesis. The Nyaya is sometimes called Tarka-Vidya or the Science of Debate, Vada-Vidya or the Science of Discussion. Tarka is the special feature of the Nyaya. Nyaya is not merely formal logic, but a complete epistemology. Logic is merely one part or a single topic under Nyayya Darsana.<ref name=":1">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 190-196</ref> Nyaya Sutra by Gautama is the first work on Nyaya Darsana. This is the most famous book of this school. Numerous commentaries. have been written on this book by various authors viz. Nyaya-Bhashya by Vatsyayana, Nyayalankara by Shrikantha, Nyaya-Manjari by Jayanta, Nyaya-Bodhini by Govardhana, Nyaya-Varttika-Tatparya-Tika by Vachaspati Misra.
==== Nyaya—A Method of Philosophical Enquiry ====
The purpose of Nyaya is critical examination of the objects of knowledge by means of the canons of logical proof. The Nyaya system deals critically with metaphysical problems. It contains discussions on psychology, logic, metaphysics and theology. The Nyaya is intended to furnish a correct method of philosophical enquiry into all the objects and subjects of human knowledge, including the process of reasoning and laws of thought. The evidence of the senses is submitted to a critical enquiry. The Nyaya gives a description of the mechanism of knowledge in detail.<ref name=":1" />
Nyaya is the basis of all Sanskrit philosophical studies. It is an introduction to all systematic philosophy. It is the preliminary course for a student of Philosophy. A study of the Nyaya Darsana develops the power of reasoning or arguing.<ref name=":1" />
==== Discussion of Certain Metaphysical Concepts under Nyaya Darsana<ref name=":1" /> ====
'''1. Knowledge'''<ref name=":1" />
Knowledge implies four conditions:
# The subject or the Pramata, the cogniser
# The object or the Prameya (प्रमेय)
# The resulting state of cognition or Pramiti
# The means of knowledge or the Pramana
The Prameya, or the objects of which right knowledge to be obtained, are twelve, viz.,
{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|
* [[Soul (Atman)]]
* [[Body (Sarira)]]
* [[Senses (Indriyas)]]
* [[Objects of senses (Artha)]]
* [[Intellect (Buddhi)]]
* [[Mind (Manas)]]
* [[Activity (Pravritti)]]
* [[Fault (Dosha)]]
* [[Transmigration (Pretyabhava)]]
* [[Fruit (Phala)]]
* [[Pain (Dukha]]
* [[Salvation (Apavarga)]]
}}
The Pramanas or the means of right knowledge are:
# Perception (Pratyaksha)
# Inference (Anumana)
# Comparison (Upamana)
# Word, or verbal testimony (Sabda)
Sabda, or verbal testimony, includes Vedic revelation. Pratyaksha is perception by the senses.
'''2. God'''<ref name=":1" />
Nyaya Darsana says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called Adrishta, under the control of God. God supervises the work of Adrishta. God does not alter the course of Adrishta but renders its operation possible. God is the bestower of the fruits of actions of human beings. God is a Special Soul endowed with omnipotence and omniscience, by which He guides and regulates world. God is a Personal Being. He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge), Adharma (demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge), Ichcha (desire) and Prayatna (volitional effort). God is One, Creator, who is endowed with Nitya Jnana (eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu (all-pervading).
'''3. The Soul'''<ref name=":1" />
The soul is a real being. It is an eternal entity. Desire, aversion, volition, pleasure, pain, intelligence and cognition are its qualities. The object of the notion of "I" is the soul. No cognition or recollection is possible without a soul. The eye cannot see objects and the ear cannot hear sounds without a soul. There should be an agent to use the instruments (senses). That agent is the soul. After an object is seen, even if both the eyes are destroyed, the knowledge that I have seen remains. This knowledge is not a quality of either the objects or the senses. The mind is not the soul. It is only an instrument of the soul, by means of which it thinks. The self is the subject. The soul exists even when the body perishes, the senses are cut off and the mind is controlled. There are infinite numbers of souls.
'''4. The Universe'''<ref name=":1" />
The universe is a composite of eternal, unalterable, causeless atoms, and it exists independently of our thoughts. The universe is the modification of the atoms (Paramanus) of the physical elements: '''Earth (Prithvi), Water (Apas), Fire (Tejas) and Air (Vayu)'''. The Nyaya Darsana admits nine objects (Dravyas), viz., Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Ether, Time, Space (Quarters), Mind and the Self (Atman).
'''5. Cause of Bondage and the Means to Emancipation'''<ref name=":1" />
Misapprehension (Mithya-Jnana), faults (Dosha), activity (Pravritti), birth (Janma) and pain (Duhkha) constitute the world. False notion or false knowledge is at the root of all misery and pain. From Mithya-Jnana or false notion comes the fault of like and dislike (Raga-Dvesha); from Raga-Devesha proceeds Karma or action—virtuous or vicious—which forces a man to pass through repeated births for the sake of its reward or punishment. From these births proceed misery and pain. It is the aim of philosophy to eradicate the false notion or Mithya-Jnana which is at the root of all miseries and pains. On the successive annihilation of misapprehension, faults, activity, birth and pain, there follows release (Apavarga).
'''6. The Sixteen Categories'''<ref name=":1" />
One can remove misapprehension or false knowledge and attain supreme felicity by the true knowledge of the sixteen categories. The sixteen categories are: means of right knowledge (Pramana), object of right knowledge (Prameya), doubt (Samsaya), purpose (Prayojana), familiar instance (Drishtanta), established tenet (Siddhanta), members (Avayava), argumentation (Tarka), ascertainment (Nirnaya), discussion (Vada) wrangling (Jalpa), cavil (Vitanda), fallacy (Hetvabhasa), quibble (Chala), futility (Jati), and occasion for rebuke (Nigraha-sthana).
There is, first, the state of '''Samsaya''' or doubt about the point to be discussed. Next comes the '''Prayojana''' or motive for discussing it. Next follows a '''Drishtanta''' or example Which leads to the '''Siddhanta''' or established conclusion. Then comes the objector with his '''Avayava''' or argument, split up into five members. Next follows the '''Tarka''' or refutation, and the '''Nirnaya''' or ascertainment of the true state of the case. A further '''Vada''' or controversy takes place, which leads to '''Jalpa''' or mere wrangling. This is followed by '''Vitanda''' or cavilling, Hetvabhasa or fallacious reasoning, and Nigraha-sthana, the putting an end to all discussions by a demonstration of the objector's incapacity for argument.
When one attains the true knowledge, his faults viz. affection (Raga), aversion (Dvesha) and stupidity (Moha) vanish. Aversion includes anger, envy, malice and hatred. Attachment includes lust, greed, avidity and covetousness. Stupidity includes suspicion, conceit, carelessness and misapprehension. Stupidity generates dislike and attachment. One must put an end to the chain which begins with misapprehension or false knowledge and ends with pain. If false knowledge vanishes, faults disappear. If faults vanish, one is freed from activity and consequent transmigration and pains.
Transmigration, which consists of the soul's leaving one body and taking another, is the cause of its undergoing pleasure and pain. A soul which is no longer subject to transmigration is freed from all pains. The soul attains release as soon as there is an end to the body, and consequently to pleasure and pain.
'''7. The State of Apavarga or Release'''<ref name=":1" />
Apavarga, or release, is absolute deliverance from pain. It is freedom from pain. It is cessation of pain. It is not the enjoyment of positive pleasure. It is not annihilation of the self. It is destruction of bondage. Release from the twenty-one kinds of pain or Duhkha is liberation (Moksha). In the state of release, there is no connection of mind with the Atman. The Atman is destitute of desire, effort, merit, demerit, hatred, mental impressions, etc., in the state of liberation, as, then, there is no mind. The liberation (Moksha) of the Naiyayikas is a state of painless, and passionless existence.
==== Similarities Between Nyaya and Vaiseshika<ref name=":1" /> ====
The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are analytic types of philosophy. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika explore the significance of time, space, cause, matter, mind, soul and knowledge for experience, and give the results in the form of a theory of the universe. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are regarded as parts of one whole. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. They are allied systems. They both believe in a Personal God, a plurality of souls and an atomic universe. Further, they use many arguments in common.<ref name=":1" />
वैशेषिकः || Vaiseshika Darsana
साङ्ख्यः || Samkhya (Kapila Muni)
योगः || Yoga (Maharishi Patanjali)
पूर्वमीमांसा || Poorva Mimamsa (Jaimini)
उत्तरमीमांसा || Uttara Mimamsa or वेदान्त || Vedanta (Badrayana or Vyasa)
==References==
<references/>
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]