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A '''sutra''' ([[IAST]]: ''sūtra'') is an [[aphorism]] or other teaching that is part of the ancient religious traditions originating in [[South Asia]], particularly [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref>{{cite dictionary | title=sutra | dictionary=Dictionary.com | url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/sutra?s=t | accessdate=November 8, 2017}}</ref><ref name="monierwilliamssutra">[http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1200/mw__1274.html Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry for ''sutra'', page 1241]</ref><ref name=winternitz249/> The term ''sutra'' can broadly refer to a single [[aphorism]], a collection of aphorisms in the form of a manual or even a condensed manual or text.<ref name="monierwilliamssutra"/> Sutras are considered a genre of ancient and medieval Indian texts.<ref name=winternitz249/>

Sutras are a distinct type of literary composition, a compilation of short [[aphorism|aphoristic]] statements.<ref name="winternitz249" /><ref name="gavinfloodaith54">Gavin Flood (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-43878-0}}, pages 54–55</ref> Each sutra is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.<ref name="monierwilliamssutra">[http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1200/mw__1274.html Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry for ''sutra'', page 1241]</ref><ref name="winternitz249" />  

In [[Hinduism]], sutras are a distinct type of literary composition, a compilation of short [[aphorism|aphoristic]] statements.<ref name=winternitz249/><ref name=gavinfloodaith54>Gavin Flood (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-43878-0}}, pages 54–55</ref> Each sutra is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.<ref name="monierwilliamssutra"/><ref name="winternitz249"/> The oldest sutras of Hinduism are found in the [[Brahmana]] and [[Aranyaka]] layers of the [[Vedas]].<ref name="maxmullerhas108"/><ref name="winternitz252"/> Every school of [[Hindu philosophy]], Vedic guides for rites of passage, various fields of arts, law, and social ethics developed respective sutras, which helped teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next.<ref name="gavinfloodaith54"/><ref name="maxmullerhas74"/><ref>{{cite book | last =White | first =David Gordon | year =2014 | title =The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography | publisher =Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0-691-14377-4|pages=194–195}}</ref>

Indian Philosophy has six Aastika schools called the [[Shad Darshanas|Shad-darsana]]--the six ways of seeing things, the six different schools of thought. The six schools of philosophy are six demonstrations of Truth. Each school has developed, systematised and correlated the various parts of the Veda in its own way. Each system has its '''Sutrakara''', i.e. the one great Rishi, who systematised the doctrines of the school and put them in '''short aphorisms or Sutras'''.<ref name=":0">Swami Sivananda, All About Hinduism, Page 47-51</ref>

In Buddhism, sutras, also known as ''suttas'', are [[Buddhist texts#canonical texts|canonical scriptures]], many of which are regarded as records of the oral teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]]. The Pali form of the word, ''sutta'', is used exclusively to refer to the scriptures of the early [[Pali Canon]], the only texts recognized by [[Theravada]] Buddhism as canonical.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

The Sutras are terse and laconic. The Rishis have condensed their thoughts in the aphorisms. It is very difficult to understand them without the help of commentaries by great sages or Rishis. Hence, there arose many commentators or Bhashyakaras.<ref name=":0" />

In Jainism, sutras also known as ''suyas'' are canonical sermons of [[Mahavira]] contained in the [[Jain Agamas]] as well as some later (post-canonical) normative texts.<ref name="kelting111"/><ref name="jainigasjd32"/>

Every school of [[Hindu philosophy]], Vedic guides for rites of passage, various fields of arts, law, and social ethics developed respective sutras, which helped teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next.<ref name="gavinfloodaith54" /><ref name="maxmullerhas74" /><ref>{{cite book | last =White | first =David Gordon | year =2014 | title =The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography | publisher =Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0-691-14377-4|pages=194–195}}</ref>

==Etymology==

==Etymology==

The word ''sūtra'' ([[Sanskrit]]: सूत्र, [[Pali]]: ''sūtta'', [[Ardha Magadhi]]: ''sūya'') means "string, thread".<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249>M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0264-3}}, pages 249</ref> The root of the word is ''siv'', that which sews and holds things together.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref>{{cite book|last=MacGregor|first=Geddes|title=Dictionary of Religion and Philosophy|year=1989|publisher=Paragon House|location=New York|isbn=1-55778-019-6|edition=1st}}</ref> The word is related to ''sūci'' (Sanskrit: सूचि) meaning "needle, list",<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+suci&trans=Translate&direction=AU suci] Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref> and ''sūnā'' (Sanskrit: सूना) meaning "woven".<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/>

The word ''sūtra'' ([[Sanskrit]]: सूत्र, [[Pali]]: ''sūtta'', [[Ardha Magadhi]]: ''sūya'') means "string, thread".<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249>M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0264-3}}, pages 249</ref> The root of the word is ''siv'', that which sews and holds things together.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref>{{cite book|last=MacGregor|first=Geddes|title=Dictionary of Religion and Philosophy|year=1989|publisher=Paragon House|location=New York|isbn=1-55778-019-6|edition=1st}}</ref> The word is related to ''sūci'' (Sanskrit: सूचि) meaning "needle, list",<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+suci&trans=Translate&direction=AU suci] Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref> and ''sūnā'' (Sanskrit: सूना) meaning "woven".<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/>

In the context of literature, ''sūtra'' means a distilled collection of syllables and words, any form or manual of "aphorism, rule, direction" hanging together like threads with which the teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249/>

: '''अस्तोभं अनवद्यं च सूत्रं सूत्र विदो विदुः॥'''

A Sutra or an aphorism is a short formula with the least possible number of letters, without any ambiguity or doubtful assertion, containing the very essence, embracing all meanings, without any stop or obstruction and absolutely faultless in nature.<ref name=":0" />  

A ''sūtra'' is any short rule, states Moriz Winternitz, in Indian literature; it is "a theorem condensed in few words".<ref name=winternitz249/> A collection of ''sūtras'' becomes a text, and this is also called ''sūtra'' (often capitalized in Western literature).<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/><ref name=winternitz249/>

The Sutrakara or the composer of the aphorisms is said to be very pleased if he is able to reduce one letter in his abstruse Sutra. The best example of the greatest, the tersest and the most perfect of Sutra literature is the series of aphorisms called the Ashtadhyayi composed by Panini. Panini is the father of all Sutrakaras from whom all others seem to have borrowed the method of composition. The Sutras are meant to explain a big volume of knowledge in short assertions suitable to be kept in memory at all times.<ref name=":0" />

A ''sūtra'' is different from other components such as ''Shlokas'', ''Anuvyakhayas'' and ''Vyakhyas'' found in ancient Indian literature.<ref name=maxmullerhasl110/> A ''sūtra'' is a condensed rule which succinctly states the message,<ref>{{cite book|author=Irving L. Finkel |title=Ancient Board Games in Perspective: Papers from the 1990 British Museum Colloquium, with Additional Contributions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B20NAQAAMAAJ |year=2007|publisher=British Museum Press |isbn=978-0-7141-1153-7 |page=203 }}</ref> while a ''[[Shloka]]'' is a verse that conveys the complete message and is structured to certain rules of musical meter,<ref>{{cite book|author= Kale Pramod |title=The Theatric Universe: (a Study of the Natyasastra) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yRdNBKIHnjkC |year=1974|publisher=Popular|isbn=978-81-7154-118-8 |page=8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lewis Rowell |title=Music and Musical Thought in Early India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ |year=2015|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-73034-9 |page=135 }}</ref> a ''Anuvyakhaya'' is an explanation of the reviewed text, while a ''Vyakhya'' is a comment by the reviewer.<ref name=maxmullerhasl110>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/110/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 110–111</ref><ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?beginning=0+&tinput=vyakhya&trans=Translate व्याख्या], Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany</ref>

The six Vedangas and the six systems of Hindu philosophy form the twelve sets of Sutra literature of the world. In addition to these, there are later compositions like the Narada-Bhakti Sutras, the Sandilya-Bhakti Sutras, etc.<ref name=":0" />

Sutras first appear in the [[Brahmana]] and [[Aranyaka]] layer of Vedic literature.<ref name=winternitz252>M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0264-3}}, pages 251–253</ref> They grow in the Vedangas, such as the Shrauta Sutras and Kalpa Sutras.<ref name=monierwilliamssutra/> These were designed so that they can be easily communicated from a teacher to student, memorized by the recipient for discussion or self-study or as reference.<ref name=winternitz249/>

=== Bhashya ===

A Bhashya (Sanskrit: भाष्य) is an elaborate exposition, a commentary on the Sutras, with word by word meaning of the aphoristic precepts, their running translation, together with the individual views of the commentator or the Bhashyakara.<ref name=":0" />

A sutra by itself is condensed shorthand, and the threads of syllable are difficult to decipher or understand, without associated scholarly [[Bhasya]] or deciphering commentary that fills in the "[[Warp and woof|woof]]".<ref>Paul Deussen, The System of the Vedanta: According to Badarayana's Brahma Sutras and Shankara's Commentary thereon, Translator: Charles Johnston, {{ISBN|978-1-5191-1778-6}}, page 26</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/x8771j1117448987/ |author1=Tubb, Gary A. |author2=Emery B. Boose |title=Scholastic Sanskrit, A Manual for Students |date= |accessdate=2013-03-16 |doi=10.1007/s10783-008-9085-y |volume=51 |journal=Indo-Iranian Journal |pages=45–46}}</ref>

The best and the exemplary Bhashya in Sanskrit literature is the one written by Patanjali on the Vyakarana Sutras of Panini. This Bhashya is so important that it is called the MAHABHASHYA and its celebrated author is specially called the BHASHYAKARA. Patanjali is the father of Bhashyakaras.<ref name=":0" />  

The oldest manuscripts that have survived into the modern era, that contain extensive sutras, are part of the [[Vedas]] dated to be from the late 2nd millennium BCE through mid 1st-millennium BCE.<ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/314/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 314–319</ref> The [[Aitareya Aranyaka]] for example, states Winternitz, is primarily a collection of ''sutras''.<ref name=winternitz252/> Their use and ancient roots are attested by sutras being mentioned in larger genre of ancient non-Vedic Hindu literature called ''Gatha'', ''Narashansi'', ''Itihasa'', and ''Akhyana'' (songs, legends, epics, and stories).<ref name=mullersutras40>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/40/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 40–45, 71–77</ref>

=== Vritti ===

In the history of Indian literature, large compilations of sutras, in diverse fields of knowledge, have been traced to the period from 600 BCE to 200 BCE (mostly after Buddha and Mahavira), and this has been called the "sutras period".<ref name=mullersutras40/><ref>Arvind Sharma (2000), Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-19-564441-8}}, page 206</ref> This period followed the more ancient ''Chhandas period'', ''Mantra period'' and ''Brahmana period''.<ref>[[Max Muller]], [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/70/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 70</ref>

Vritti is a short  gloss explaining the aphorisms in a more elaborate way, but not as extensively as in a Bhashya. An example is Bodhayana's Vritti on the Brahma Sutras.<ref name=":0" />

=== Varttika ===

|author=[[Max Muller]]|source=History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature<ref name=maxmullerhas74>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/74/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, page 74</ref>|width=72%}}

The compendium of ancient Vedic sutra literature that has survived, in full or fragments, includes the [[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Kalpa Sutras]], [[Smarta Sutras]], [[Srauta Sutras]], [[Dharma Sutras]], [[Grhya Sutras]], and [[Sulba Sutras]].<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofancient00mluoft#page/108/mode/2up History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature], Oxford University Press, pages 108–145</ref> Other fields for which ancient sutras are known include etymology, phonetics, and grammar.

A Varttika is a work where a critical study is made of that which is said and left unsaid or imperfectly said in a Bhashya, and the ways of making it perfect by supplying the omissions therein, are given. Examples are the Varttikas of Katyayana on Panini's Sutras, of Suresvara on Sankara's Upanishad Bhashyas, and of Kumarila Bhatta on the Sabara-Bhashya on the Karma-Mimamsa.<ref name=":0" />

 

A Vyakhyana is a running explanation in an easier language of what is said in the original, with little elucidations here and there. A Vyakhyana, particularly of a Kavya, deals with eight different modes of dissection of the Sloka, like Pada-Chheda, Vigraha, Sandhi, Alankara, Anuvada, etc. This forms an important aspect in the study of Sanskrit Sahitya Sastra.<ref name=":0" />

 

An '''Anu-Vyakhyana'''—like the one written by Sri Madhva—is a repetition of what is already written, but in greater detail. An '''Anuvada''' is merely a running translation or statement of an abstruse text of the original. '''Tika''' is only another name for Vyakhyana. The best Vyakhyanas are of Vachaspati Misra on the Darsanas, especially on Sankara's Brahmasutra-Bhashya.<ref name=":0" />

 

Tippani is just like a Vritti, but is less orthodox than the Vritti. It is an explanation of difficult words or phrases occurring in the original. Examples are Kaiyata's gloss on the Mahabhashya of Patanjali, Nagojibhatta's gloss on Kaiyata's gloss, or Appayya's gloss on Arnalananda's gloss on the Bhamati of Vachaspati Misra.<ref name=":0" /> 

===Post-vedic sutras===

===Post-vedic sutras===

Some examples of sutra texts in various schools of [[Hindu philosophy]] include:

Some examples of sutra texts in various schools of [[Hindu philosophy]] include:

* [[Brahma Sutras]] (or Vedanta Sutra) – a Sanskrit text, composed by Badarayana, likely sometime between 200 BCE to 200 CE.<ref name=nvisaeva35>NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-1281-7}}, page 35 with footnote 30</ref> The text contains 555 ''sutras'' in four chapters that summarize the philosophical and spiritual ideas in the [[Upanishads]].<ref name=jamesloch124>James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3179-8}}, page 124</ref> It is one of the foundational texts of the [[Vedānta]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref name=jamesloch124/>

* [[Brahma Sutras]] (or Vedanta Sutra) – a Sanskrit text, composed by Badarayana, likely sometime between 200 BCE to 200 CE.<ref name=nvisaeva35>NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-1281-7}}, page 35 with footnote 30</ref> The text contains 555 ''sutras'' in four chapters that summarize the philosophical and spiritual ideas in the [[Upanishads]].<ref name=jamesloch124>James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8239-3179-8}}, page 124</ref> It is one of the foundational texts of the [[Vedānta]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref name=jamesloch124/>

* [[Yoga Sutras]] – contains 196 sutras on [[Yoga]] including the eight limbs and meditation. The ''Yoga Sutras'' were compiled around 400 CE by [[Patanjali]], taking materials about yoga from older traditions.<ref>{{Citation | last =Wujastyk| first =Dominik | year =2011 | title =The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice" | publisher =Princeton University Press|page=33}}</ref> The text has been highly influential on Indian culture and spiritual traditions, and it is among the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages.<ref>{{cite book | last =White | first =David Gordon | year =2014 | title =The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography | publisher =Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0-691-14377-4|page=xvi}}</ref>

* [[Yoga Sutras]] – contains 196 sutras on [[Yoga]] including the eight limbs and meditation. The ''Yoga Sutras'' were compiled around 400 CE by [[Patanjali]], taking materials about yoga from older traditions.<ref>{{Citation | last =Wujastyk| first =Dominik | year =2011 | title =The Path to Liberation through Yogic Mindfulness in Early Ayurveda. In: David Gordon White (ed.), "Yoga in practice" | publisher =Princeton University Press|page=33}}</ref> The text has been highly influential on Indian culture and spiritual traditions, and it is among the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages.<ref>{{cite book | last =White | first =David Gordon | year =2014 | title =The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali: A Biography | publisher =Princeton University Press |isbn= 978-0-691-14377-4|page=xvi}}</ref>

* [[Samkhya Sutra]] – is a collection of major [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] texts of the [[Samkhya]] school of Hindu philosophy, including the sutras on [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]] of Kapila.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/n7/mode/2up Samkhya Pravachana Sutra] NL Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, page i</ref> It consists of six books with 526 sutras.

* [[Samkhya Sutra]] – is a collection of major [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] texts of the [[Samkhya]] school of Hindu philosophy, including the sutras on [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]] of Kapila.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/thesamkhyaphilos00sinhuoft#page/n7/mode/2up Samkhya Pravachana Sutra] NL Sinha, The Samkhya Philosophy, page i</ref> It consists of six books with 526 sutras.

* [[Vaisheshika Sutra]] - is the foundational text of the [[Vaisheshika]] school of Hinduism, dated to between 4th-century BCE to 1st-century BCE, authored by Kanada.<ref name=klausklos335/> With 370 sutras, it aphoristically teaches non-theistic [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]], epistemology, and its metaphysics. The first two sutras of the text expand as, "Now an explanation of [[Dharma]]; The means to prosperity and salvation is Dharma."<ref name=klausklos335>Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7082-4}}, pages 334–335</ref><ref>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, pages 98–107</ref>

* [[Vaisheshika Sutra]] - is the foundational text of the [[Vaisheshika]] school of Hinduism, dated to between 4th-century BCE to 1st-century BCE, authored by Kanada.<ref name=klausklos335/> With 370 sutras, it aphoristically teaches non-theistic [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]], epistemology, and its metaphysics. The first two sutras of the text expand as, "Now an explanation of [[Dharma]]; The means to prosperity and salvation is Dharma."<ref name=klausklos335>Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7082-4}}, pages 334–335</ref><ref>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, pages 98–107</ref>

* [[Nyaya Sutras]] – is an ancient text of [[Nyaya]] school of Hindu philosophy composed by Akṣapada Gautama, sometime between 6th-century BCE to 2nd-century CE.<ref name=jfowlerpor129>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, page 129</ref><ref>B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.</ref> It is notable for focusing on knowledge and logic, and making no mention of Vedic rituals.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/> The text includes 528 aphoristic sutras, about rules of reason, logic, epistemology, and metaphysics.<ref>Ganganatha Jha (1999 Reprint), ''Nyaya Sutras of Gautama'' (4 vols.), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1264-2}}</ref><ref>SC Vidyabhushan and NL Sinha (1990), The Nyâya Sûtras of Gotama, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0748-8}}</ref> These sutras are divided into five books, with two chapters in each book.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/> The first book is structured as a general introduction and table of contents of sixteen categories of knowledge.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/> Book two is about ''[[pramana]]'' (epistemology), book three is about ''prameya'' or the objects of knowledge, and the text discusses the nature of knowledge in remaining books.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/>

* [[Nyaya Sutras]] – is an ancient text of [[Nyaya]] school of Hindu philosophy composed by Akṣapada Gautama, sometime between 6th-century BCE to 2nd-century CE.<ref name=jfowlerpor129>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, page 129</ref><ref>B. K. Matilal "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.</ref> It is notable for focusing on knowledge and logic, and making no mention of Vedic rituals.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/> The text includes 528 aphoristic sutras, about rules of reason, logic, epistemology, and metaphysics.<ref>Ganganatha Jha (1999 Reprint), ''Nyaya Sutras of Gautama'' (4 vols.), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1264-2}}</ref><ref>SC Vidyabhushan and NL Sinha (1990), The Nyâya Sûtras of Gotama, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0748-8}}</ref> These sutras are divided into five books, with two chapters in each book.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/> The first book is structured as a general introduction and table of contents of sixteen categories of knowledge.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/> Book two is about ''[[pramana]]'' (epistemology), book three is about ''prameya'' or the objects of knowledge, and the text discusses the nature of knowledge in remaining books.<ref name=jfowlerpor129/>

 

* [[Purva Mimamsa Sutras|Mimamsa Sutras]] - is the foundational text of the [[Mimamsa]] school of Hinduism, authored by Jaimini, and it emphasizes the early part of the Vedas, that is rituals and religious works as means to salvation.<ref name=jeanfowler67>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, pages 67–86</ref> The school emphasized precision in the selection of words, construction of sentences, developed rules for hermeneutics of language and any text, adopted and then refined principles of logic from the [[Nyaya]] school, and developed extensive rules for epistemology.<ref name=jeanfowler67/> An atheistic school that supported external Vedic sacrifices and rituals, its Mimamsa Sutra contains twelve chapters with nearly 2700 ''sutras''.<ref name=jeanfowler67/>

* [[Purva Mimamsa Sutras|Mimamsa Sutras]] - is the foundational text of the [[Mimamsa]] school of Hinduism, authored by Jaimini, and it emphasizes the early part of the Vedas, that is rituals and religious works as means to salvation.<ref name=jeanfowler67>Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1-898723-94-3}}, pages 67–86</ref> The school emphasized precision in the selection of words, construction of sentences, developed rules for hermeneutics of language and any text, adopted and then refined principles of logic from the [[Nyaya]] school, and developed extensive rules for epistemology.<ref name=jeanfowler67/> An atheistic school that supported external Vedic sacrifices and rituals, its Mimamsa Sutra contains twelve chapters with nearly 2700 ''sutras''.<ref name=jeanfowler67/>

* Dharma-sutras - of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana, and Vāsiṣṭha

* Dharma-sutras - of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana, and Vāsiṣṭha