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→औपनिषदिककालः ॥ Upanishadic Age
=== औपनिषदिककालः ॥ Upanishadic Age ===
=== औपनिषदिककालः ॥ Upanishadic Age ===
Upanishadic texts are the main source for the documented information about Yoga practices and related literature of this period. It is said that the Rishis slowly refined and developed Yoga and documented their practices and beliefs in the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]].<ref name=":0" />
Upanishadic texts are the main source for the documented information about Yoga practices and related literature of this period. It is said that the Rishis slowly refined and developed Yoga and documented their practices and beliefs in the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]].<ref name=":0" />
One of the earliest Upanishadic references to Yoga is found in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad. Here we find the description of the sitting posture, controlling the senses and breathing, restraining and concentration of mind. Significance of the Ashtanga yoga is suggested and requirements for the practice of yoga are highlighted.
त्रिरुन्नतं स्थाप्य समं शरीरं हृदीन्द्रियाणि मनसा सन्निवेश्य । ब्रह्मोडुपेन प्रतरेत विद्वान्स्रोतांसि सर्वाणि भयानकानि ॥ ८ ॥ (Shve. Upan. 2.8)<ref name=":9">Shvetashvatara Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 2])</ref>
Holding his body in a straight posture, holding the chest, neck, and head erect, and drawing the senses and the mind into the heart, the wise should cross over the fearful currents of the world by means of the raft of Brahman.
प्राणान्प्रपीड्येह स युक्तचेष्टः क्षीणे प्राणे नासिकयोच्छ्वसीत । दुष्टाश्वयुक्तमिव वाहमेनं विद्वान्मनो धारयेताप्रमत्तः ॥ ९ ॥ (Shve. Upan. 2.9)<ref name=":9" />
Controlling the senses, repressing and regulating the breathing, checking the movements of the body, gently breathing through the nostrils, the wise should undistractedly restrain his mind, that chariot yoked with vicious horses.
=== पतञ्जलेः कालः ॥ The Age of Patanjali ===
=== पतञ्जलेः कालः ॥ The Age of Patanjali ===
In an early review of research on meditation and psi (psychic ability), Honorton (1977) lists 16 studies. Out of these, nine experimental series gave significant evidence of psi among meditating subjects.<ref name=":8" />
In an early review of research on meditation and psi (psychic ability), Honorton (1977) lists 16 studies. Out of these, nine experimental series gave significant evidence of psi among meditating subjects.<ref name=":8" />
=== Yoga and Emotional Effects ===
In a study of the effect of yoga practice on the neuroticism and anxiety scores of subjects, Kocher (1972) found that the subjects who practiced yoga obtained significantly lower scores on neuroticism, anxiety, and general hostility after 8 months of practice consisting of āsanas, prāṇāyāma, and kriyās (cleansing exercises). No such effects were observed in a control group of subjects who did not practice yoga.
Oak and Bhole (1982) also reported a decrement in neuroticism and anxiety scores among asthmatics undergoing yogic treatment.
In a study involving a sample of 356 nonclinical subjects, Vinod et al. (1991) reported significant effect of yoga on reducing anxiety.
According to Yoga, suffering is inherent in human existence and yoga practice is a way of overcoming it. The classical philosophical conception of suffering runs parallel to contemporary psychological notion of stress. Yoga may be seen as a method to develop strategies involving practice of detachment, desireless action, and focused attention, which are believed to lead to a stress-free state of equanimity. In the West it is the relation between the stressor and stress that is emphasized. Coping is seen as a moderating variable. The effects of stressor on the person are to some degree altered by the coping resources of the person. In the Indian tradition, it is the coping and not the stressor that is seen as the important factor in stress management. Desires and conflicts cause stress and suffering. Ego-centeredness is at the root of desires, which inevitably lead to conflicts. Therefore, ego-control/deconstruction and movement away from self-centeredness to altruism become the way to reduce suffering.<ref name=":8" />
== संहृतिः ॥ Synopsis ==
== संहृतिः ॥ Synopsis ==