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A child was required to have certain qualities to become a good student. Ancient seers emphasized on the importance of habits, routine, imitation and association to secure ready cooperation of the shishya towards education. At a young impressionable age a child can be moulded to develop the required [[Vidyarthi's Qualities (विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि)|vidyarthi's qualities (विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि)]] and such habits constitute a second nature in adulthood.
A child was required to have certain qualities to become a good student. Ancient seers emphasized on the importance of habits, routine, imitation and association to secure ready cooperation of the shishya towards education. At a young impressionable age a child can be moulded to develop the required [[Vidyarthi's Qualities (विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि)|vidyarthi's qualities (विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि)]] and such habits constitute a second nature in adulthood.
=== Samskaras related to Vidya ===
=== Samskaras related to Vidya ===
Samskaras related to education are those activities prescribed by the vaidika and dharmika texts to prepare a young mind to receive the vast knowledge and perform the required vaidika rites.
[[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|Samskaras]] related to education are those activities prescribed by the vaidika and dharmika texts to prepare a young mind to receive the vast knowledge and perform the required vaidika rites.
==== अक्षराभ्यासः ॥ Aksharabhyasa or Vidyarambha ====
==== अक्षराभ्यासः ॥ Aksharabhyasa or Vidyarambha ====
Also called as Aksharavishkarana (अक्षराविष्करणम्), was performed at the commencement of the primary education. Fifth year was prescribed but if postponed it had to be performed before upanayana samskara. Though not mentioned in the Grhya sutras under the Shodasa samskaras, this ritual is mentioned in the recent dharmashastras according to some scholars but not attached with importance as the Upanayana.<ref name=":0" /> Grhyasutras and Dharmasutras have laid down rituals for occasions like Annaprasana (first instance of food given to child) and grihya-nishkramana (first outing of the child) but failed to mention the commencement of education prior to Upanayana samskara. It may be attributed to the reason that writing of alphabet was not prevalent as commencement of vedic education involved memorization of mantras as against writing.
Also called as Aksharavishkarana (अक्षराविष्करणम्), [[Vidyarambha (विद्यारम्भः)]] was performed at the commencement of the primary education. Fifth year was prescribed but if postponed it had to be performed before upanayana samskara. Though not mentioned in the Grhya sutras under the Shodasa samskaras, this ritual is mentioned in the recent [[Dharmashastras (धर्मशास्त्राणि)|dharmashastras]] according to some scholars but not attached with importance as the Upanayana.<ref name=":0" /> [[Grhyasutras (गृह्यसूत्राणि)|Grhyasutras]] and Dharmasutras have laid down rituals for occasions like [[Annaprasanam (अन्नप्रासनम्)|Annaprasana]] (first instance of food given to child) and grihya-[[Nishkramana Samskara (निष्क्रमणम्)|nishkramana]] (first outing of the child) but failed to mention the commencement of education prior to Upanayana samskara. It may be attributed to the reason that writing of alphabet was not prevalent as commencement of vedic education involved memorization of mantras as against writing.
The activity of Aksharabhyasa is fairly simple, requiring the young boy or girl to worship Sarasvati Devi, the devata for learning, Vinayaka, devata for removing obstacles and the deities of the family. The father or purohit makes the child write the name of deity (usually Shiva for auspiciousness) on rice with his finger (golden or silver pen in some instances). Suitable danas are made to the purohit and the Brahmanas invited for the ceremony which marks the end of the ceremony.
The activity of Aksharabhyasa is fairly simple, requiring the young boy or girl to worship Sarasvati Devi, the devata for learning, Vinayaka, devata for removing obstacles and the deities of the family. The father or purohit makes the child write the name of deity (usually Shiva for auspiciousness) on rice with his finger (golden or silver pen in some instances). Suitable danas are made to the purohit and the Brahmanas invited for the ceremony which marks the end of the ceremony.
==== उपनयनम् ॥ Upanayana ====
==== उपनयनम् ॥ Upanayana ====
One of the important Samskaras, [[Upanayana (उपनयनम्)|Upanayana]] signifies the transition of a child to a student. It literally means taking the student to a teacher in order to hand him over to the latter for his education. This samskara was performed at the time a student commenced his vaidika vidya under the guidance of an Acharya with whom he is to live until his education is complete. The first guru of a child is the mother followed by the father who teaches him worldly knowledge until a long time. Usually for higher knowledge children were sent to learn from a scholarly person. Smritis give a detailed set of rules about the different aspects of Upanayana for different varnas. Gradually as vedic studies fell into the background, Upanayana samskara has gone out of vogue among the Kshatriya and Vaishya communities and remained only for the Brahmanas.
One of the important [[Samskaras (संस्काराः)|Samskaras]], [[Upanayana (उपनयनम्)|Upanayana]] signifies the transition of a child to a student. It literally means taking the student to a teacher in order to hand him over to the latter for his education. This samskara was performed at the time a student commenced his vaidika vidya under the guidance of an Acharya with whom he is to live until his education is complete. The first guru of a child is the mother followed by the father who teaches him worldly knowledge until a long time. Usually for higher knowledge children were sent to learn from a scholarly person. Smritis give a detailed set of rules about the different aspects of Upanayana for different varnas. Gradually as vedic studies fell into the background, Upanayana samskara has gone out of vogue among the Kshatriya and Vaishya communities and remained only for the Brahmanas.
This samskara has quite a few aspects associated with it such as the age at which it is performed, the auspicious day, the kaupina, girdle or mekhala, the deer skin, the staff, the yajnopaveeta, the Savitri mantras to be recited, samidhadhana (the process of offering samidh into the fire) sandhayavandana each having special significance. The ceremonial bhiksha (begging alms) was a practice that commenced on the day of the Upanayana. The rites are performed for three days during which time the student is said to remain in an embryonic condition, on the fourth day he is said to have taken his adhyatmik birth, and so is called a Dvija henceforth. Medhajanana ritual performed by the preceptor marks the termination of the 3 day long ceremony.
This samskara has quite a few aspects associated with it such as the age at which it is performed, the auspicious day, the kaupina, girdle or mekhala, the deer skin, the staff, the [[Yajnopavita (यज्ञोपवीतम्)|yajnopavita]], the Savitri mantras to be recited, [[Samidadhana (समिदाधानम्)|samidadhana]] (the process of offering samidh into the fire) [[Sandhyavandana (सन्ध्यावन्दनम्)|sandhyavandana]] each having special significance. The ceremonial bhiksha (begging alms) was a practice that commenced on the day of the Upanayana. The rites are performed for three days during which time the student is said to remain in an embryonic condition, on the fourth day he is said to have taken his adhyatmik birth, and so is called a Dvija henceforth. Medhajanana ritual performed by the preceptor marks the termination of the 3 day long ceremony.
==== समावर्तनम् ॥ Samavartana ====
==== समावर्तनम् ॥ Samavartana ====
* [[Srimannyasa Vidya]]}}
* [[Srimannyasa Vidya]]}}
Udgita and Purushavidya (पुरुषविद्या) are two others that have been described.
Udgita and Purushavidya (पुरुषविद्या) are two others that have been described.
==== Subject of study for people of different Varnas ====
It is clear from the above discussion that Vedic study was one of the important subjects for the Dvijas (Brahmanas, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas). Manu (10.1) lays down this point in the very beginning of the tenth adhyaya as follows.<blockquote>अधीयीरंस्त्रयो वर्णाः स्वकर्मस्था द्विजातयः । प्रब्रूयाद्ब्राह्मणस्त्वेषां नेतराविति निश्चयः । । १०.१ । । (Manu. Smrt. 10.1)<ref>Manusmriti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 10])</ref></blockquote>Brahamanas were engaged in matters of governance, as Purohitas on whom the rulers relied on for advice. Gautama (11.12-13) and Apastamba (Dharmasutra 2.5.10.16) specify that the purohita was to be a learned man of good birth, endowed with polished speech, a fine form, middle age and high character and be well versed in dharma and artha.<ref name=":2">Kane, P. V. (1941) ''History of Dharmashastras, Volume 2, Part 1.'' Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. (Pages 363 - 367)</ref>
According to Gautama (11.3 and 19) a raja should be well-grounded in the three Vedas and in Anvikshiki (metaphysics); additionally he has to rely for carrying out his duties on the Veda, Vedangas, Upavedas, Puranas and Dharmashastras. Manu (7.43) and Yajnavalkya (1.311) say that he should be proficient in the three Vedas, in metaphysics, in dandaniti (the art of government and statecraft), and in Varta (economic life and production of wealth). <blockquote>त्रैविद्येभ्यस्त्रयीं विद्यां दण्डनीतिं च शाश्वतीम् । आन्वीक्षिकीं चात्मविद्यां वार्तारम्भांश्च लोकतः । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.43)</blockquote>In later times very few kshatriyas went to the Gurukulas for education, a good example is of the Mahabharata where the Kaurava and Pandava princes hardly went to a Guru's home, but Acharyas were engaged to teach them, (Dronacharya was engaged by Bhishma) and they learnt military skills.<ref name=":2" />
Kautilya in his Arthashastra after stating several views gives his own opinion that the Vidyas for a prince are four as mentioned above (Manu 7.43) that after the [[Chaulam (चौलम्)|Chaula]] samskara is performed the prince should learn the alphabet and arithmetic and when Upanayana is performed he should learn the four Vidyas till he is 16 years old and may then marry. He should in the first part of the day have instruction in elephant riding and horse riding, riding in chariots, and instruction in weilding arms; in the later part of the day he should devote time to hear puranas, dharmashastras, and arthashastra (politics).<ref name=":2" />
Dharmashastra works do not mention extensive details about education of a kshatriya or vaishya. However, many instances of adhyapana (teaching) by kshatriyas (Example, Pravahana Jaivali) and vaishyas are found in literature. Trade, agriculture and cattle rearing are the means of livelihood for Vaishyas. He should never think of giving up cattle rearing, should know the prices of jewels, corals and pearls, of metals, clothes, of perfumes and salt. He should know the ways of sowing seeds, qualities and defects of soils, measures and weights, different grades of qualities of goods, the profit and loss in trade, the rates of pay for subordinates, various alphabets and numbers, and the places where saleable articles are produced or manufactured. Education of a Shudra included learning several crafts, agriculture with the same rules applicable as vaishya apprentices. They could listen to the recitation of puranas and itihasas. Education of women in the Vedic times appeared to be much higher than in the medieval and modern times.<ref name=":2" />
=== Terms Related to Study ===
=== Terms Related to Study ===
Vidya involves the study of the subject matter by the student. If the subject matter is Vedic study it is specifically called Svadhyaya (स्वाध्यायम्), while study of any subject in general is termed as Adhyayana. Reading is Pathana (पठनम्) and repeating a mantra is termed as Japa (जपम्). Japa particularly relates to mantras and does not apply to subject matter.
Vidya involves the study of the subject matter by the student. If the subject matter is Vedic study it is specifically called Svadhyaya (स्वाध्यायम्), while study of any subject in general is termed as Adhyayana. Reading is Pathana (पठनम्) and repeating a mantra is termed as Japa (जपम्). Japa particularly relates to mantras and does not apply to subject matter.
==== स्वाध्यायम् ॥ Svadhyaya ====
==== स्वाध्यायम् ॥ Svadhyaya ====
The students of ancient days had to recite the lessons already learned either to themselves or to senior pupils and this was called their Svadhyaya. This promoted their ability to retain and recollect the studied veda mantras.<ref name=":7">Ray, Brojasundar (1938) ''Aims and Ideals of Ancient Indian Culture.'' Calcutta: A. Roy and Co.</ref> One cannot but remember the [[Samavartana (समावर्तनम्)|Samavartana]] address to the outgoing students mentioned in Taittriyopanishad, Shikshavalli which emphasizes the importance of svadhyaya. <blockquote>सत्यं वद , धर्मं चर, स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः ।... ... (Tait. Upan. Shiks. 11.1)<ref>Taittriya Upanishad [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4% (Shiksha Valli Anuvaka 11])</ref> Make no mistake about the study of the Veda..</blockquote>In ancient times (and to a limited extent even today), different families studied a specific set of texts from the entire set of vedic literature. For example, a family belonging to the Deshastha Brahmana community in Maharashtra (India) could chant a specific group of 10 texts related to the Rigveda (the Rigveda Samhita, Aitareya Brahmaṇa, Aitareya Araṇyaka, Aitareya Upanishad, Ashvalayana Shrauta Sūtra, Ashvalayana Grhya Sutra, Panini’s Așhtadhyayi, Pingala’s Chandas sutras, Yaska’s Nirukta and Katyayana’s Sarvanukramani) during their lifelong study. This same set of texts were studied by the members of the family as their primary focus generation after generation and constituted their traditional vedic study or Svadhyaya. In this form of study the focus is on the recitation of the veda mantras and is not necessarily on their meaning.<ref name=":3">Sacred HIndu Scriptures and Languages - an Introduction by Vishal Agarwal ([https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=forums&srcid=MTQyNTE0MTcxODQxNzMxMDM3MDQBMDcxOTk5MzkzMTE3Mjc4NjMzNjIBWGJGZ25zZjRCUUFKATAuMQEBdjI&authuser=0 Page 4])</ref>
The students of ancient days had to recite the lessons already learned either to themselves or to senior pupils and this was called their Svadhyaya. This promoted their ability to retain and recollect the studied veda mantras.<ref name=":7">Ray, Brojasundar (1938) ''Aims and Ideals of Ancient Indian Culture.'' Calcutta: A. Roy and Co.</ref> One cannot but remember the [[Samavartana (समावर्तनम्)|Samavartana]] address to the outgoing students mentioned in Taittriyopanishad, Shikshavalli which emphasizes the importance of svadhyaya. <blockquote>सत्यं वद , धर्मं चर, स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः ।... ... (Tait. Upan. Shiks. 11.1)<ref>Taittriya Upanishad [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4% (Shiksha Valli Anuvaka 11])</ref> Speak the truth, perform Dharma, make no mistake about the study of the Veda..</blockquote>In ancient times (and to a limited extent even today), different families studied a specific set of texts from the entire set of vedic literature. For example, a family belonging to the Deshastha Brahmana community in Maharashtra (India) could chant a specific group of 10 texts related to the Rigveda (the Rigveda Samhita, Aitareya Brahmaṇa, Aitareya Araṇyaka, Aitareya Upanishad, Ashvalayana Shrauta Sūtra, Ashvalayana Grhya Sutra, Panini’s Așhtadhyayi, Pingala’s Chandas sutras, Yaska’s Nirukta and Katyayana’s Sarvanukramani) during their lifelong study. This same set of texts were studied by the members of the family as their primary focus generation after generation and constituted their traditional vedic study or Svadhyaya. In this form of study the focus is on the recitation of the veda mantras and is not necessarily on their meaning.<ref name=":3">Sacred HIndu Scriptures and Languages - an Introduction by Vishal Agarwal ([https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=forums&srcid=MTQyNTE0MTcxODQxNzMxMDM3MDQBMDcxOTk5MzkzMTE3Mjc4NjMzNjIBWGJGZ25zZjRCUUFKATAuMQEBdjI&authuser=0 Page 4])</ref>
Taittriya Aranyakam lays down the adyayanavidhi of Svadhyaya which has been explained in Mahabhashyam (of Patanjali) as a vidhi that should be followed at all costs.<blockquote>नित्यो हि `स्वाध्यायोऽध्येतव्यः' इत्यध्ययनविधिः। यस्माद् ब्राह्मणेन निष्कारणो धर्मः षडङ्गो वेदोऽध्येयः, तदर्थश्च ज्ञातव्य: (तैत्तिरीय-आरण्यकम्, २.१५)(Mahabhashyam 3.1.3)<ref>Mahabhashyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Paspashnikam])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>nityo hi `svādhyāyo'dhyetavyaḥ' ityadhyayanavidhiḥ। yasmād brāhmaṇena niṣkāraṇo dharmaḥ ṣaḍaṅgo vedo'dhyeyaḥ, tadarthaśca jñātavya:’ (taittirīya-āraṇyakam, 2.15)(Mahabhashyam 3.1.3)</blockquote>A brahmana should without questioning the reason should learn the Dharmas, the Shadangas (vedangas) and the vedas and know their meaning. Svadhyaya is a nityakarma. The phala or result of studying svadhyaya is also given in the same anuvaka as follows <blockquote>स्वाध्यायमधीते सर्वाँल्लोकाञ्जयति सर्वाल्लोकाननृणोऽनुसंचरति तदेषाऽभ्युक्ता, इति । (Tait. Aran. 2.15)<ref>Taittriya Aranyaka ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A Prapathaka 2 Anuvaka 15]) </ref></blockquote><blockquote>svādhyāyamadhīte sarvām̐llokāñjayati sarvāllokānanr̥ṇo'nusaṁcarati tadeṣā'bhyuktā, iti । (Tait. Aran. 2.15)</blockquote>One who studies svadhyaya will acquire (surpass) all the worlds, will be free of all rnas (debts such as pitru rna, matr rna etc) and can freely move across all lokas, this is clearly stated (as the phala).
Taittriya Aranyakam lays down the adyayanavidhi of Svadhyaya which has been explained in Mahabhashyam (of Patanjali) as a vidhi that should be followed at all costs.<blockquote>नित्यो हि `स्वाध्यायोऽध्येतव्यः' इत्यध्ययनविधिः। यस्माद् ब्राह्मणेन निष्कारणो धर्मः षडङ्गो वेदोऽध्येयः, तदर्थश्च ज्ञातव्य: (तैत्तिरीय-आरण्यकम्, २.१५)(Mahabhashyam 3.1.3)<ref>Mahabhashyam ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Paspashnikam])</ref> nityo hi `svādhyāyo'dhyetavyaḥ' ityadhyayanavidhiḥ। yasmād brāhmaṇena niṣkāraṇo dharmaḥ ṣaḍaṅgo vedo'dhyeyaḥ, tadarthaśca jñātavya:’ (taittirīya-āraṇyakam, 2.15)(Mahabhashyam 3.1.3)</blockquote>A brahmana should without questioning the reason should learn the Dharmas, the Shadangas (vedangas) and the vedas and know their meaning. Svadhyaya is a nityakarma. The phala or result of studying svadhyaya is also given in the same anuvaka as follows <blockquote>स्वाध्यायमधीते सर्वाँल्लोकाञ्जयति सर्वाल्लोकाननृणोऽनुसंचरति तदेषाऽभ्युक्ता, इति । (Tait. Aran. 2.15)<ref>Taittriya Aranyaka ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A Prapathaka 2 Anuvaka 15]) </ref> svādhyāyamadhīte sarvām̐llokāñjayati sarvāllokānanr̥ṇo'nusaṁcarati tadeṣā'bhyuktā, iti । (Tait. Aran. 2.15)</blockquote>One who studies svadhyaya will acquire (surpass) all the worlds, will be free of all rnas (debts such as pitru rna, matr rna etc) and can freely move across all lokas, this is clearly stated (as the phala).
==== अध्ययनम् ॥ Adhyayana ====
==== अध्ययनम् ॥ Adhyayana ====