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Line 1: − There are the six systems of Hindu philosophy which are known as Shad Darsanas. They are:+ − # न्यायः || Nyaya (Rishi Gautama) − # वैशेषिकः || Vaiseshika (Rishi Kanada) − # साङ्ख्यः || Samkhya (Kapila Muni) − # योगः || Yoga (Maharishi Patanjali) − # पूर्वमीमांसा || Poorva Mimamsa (Jaimini) − # उत्तरमीमांसा || Uttara Mimamsa or वेदान्त || Vedanta (Badrayana or Vyasa) − Vaisheshika or Vaiśeṣika (Sanskrit: वैशेषिक) is one of the Shad Darsanas or the Veda Upangas which exist traditionally since ancient times in India. The Vaiseshika system takes its name from Visesha, or particularity which is the characteristic differentia of things. Rishi Kanada is credited as the founder of the Vaiseshika system of philosophy. He Rishi Kanada is also known by the names, Aulukya and Kasyapa. The aphorisms of Kanada contain the essence of the Vaiseshika philosophy. The principal subject treated therein is Visesha, one of the six Padarthas or categories enumerated by the founder.<ref name=":0">Swami Sivananda, All About HInduism, Page 196-202</ref> − s--\_.,per_iv - i-_____I THE APtioRism 0 There are ten chapters . -,te entire Ic-ANAt•A chapter deals With th in Ran ) „ acla s book The first Predicables. In the sec ,Et our, of p Ascertained substance I °Lncl cha <nowiki>'''</nowiki> r vadarthas or fourth chapter, he has discus: i nner sense. l'-jdescription of the soul and th_c.“apter, he hasingivtehanse -11 the third Ater, 'anada h constituents. In the fifth chapt "II the /004 and its ma or action. In the sLyth er, he h Kar scriptures. I k2unsidered Dharma or virtue according to chapter, , as established 4 , he has — . In the seventh chapter, he has established attribute and Q (CO-inherence or combination). In the eighth chapter he _......._ oarnavaya has ascertained the manifestation of knowledge, ' it source, and so on. In the ninth chapter, he has established the particular or concrete understanding. And, in the tenth chapter, he has differences in the attributes of the soul. established the There is enumeration of Padarthas (substances i the beginning. Then there is definition. Th ) in Then comes examination or demonstration. This system is chiefly concerned with the determination of the Padarthas and yet, Kanada opens the subject with an enquiry into Dharma, because Dharm.a is at the root of the knowledge of the essence of the Padarthas. The first Sutra is: Yatobhyudayanihsreyasa-siddhih so dharmah—Dharma is that which exalts and bestows the Supreme Good or Moksha (cessation of pain), + − + − THE SEVEN PADARTHAS OR CATEGORIES Padartha means literally the meaning of a word. But hers it denotes a substance discussed in philosophy. A Pnadartha is an object which can be thought (Artha) and parlied (Dada). All things which exist, which can be pearcelved and named, all objects of experience, are darthas. Compound substances are dependent and + − + − Al + − + − 198 + − + − VIII 1111i1011',M + − − S t_t 1)Sklii( , ;II f transitory. Simple − inclependcnt The Packirthas of the Vaiseshika are 111(• Substance (Dravya), (ii) Quality or opci 7 y , Action (Karma), (iv) Generality of properti(:, (sarwit,;, (v) Particularity (Visesha), (vi) Co-iiiherence or intimate rclation (Samavaya), and (vii) Non-c.xist(:riff, negation of existence (Abhava). The first three cat(:gorign of substance, quality and action have a real ohjectiv'i. existence. The next three, viz., generality, particularity' and inherence are logical categories. They are pr(iducts of intellectual discrimination. Kanada enumerated only six categories, the seventh was added by later writfri. Earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, souj and mind are the nine Dravyas or substances. The first four of these and the last are held to be atomic. The first four are both eternal and non-eternal, non-eternal in their various compounds and eternal in their ultimate atoms to which they must be traced back. Mind is an eternal substance. It does not pervade everywhere like the soul. It is atomic. It can admit only one thought at a time. There are seventeen qualities inherent in the nine substances, viz., colour smell + + + + − t three, Jogical c ectua1 iscrimination. egories, - the seventh was added by F;irtii, water, fire, air, ether, it/Tie, space, sold mind are the nine Dravyas or substances. The firs't at), of these and the last are held to be atomic. The first f()1, are both eternal and non-eternal, non-eternal in the various compounds and eternal in their ultimate i, atorri, to which they must be traced back. Mind is an eternal substance. It does not Pery everywhere like the soul. It is atomic. It can ad,. adf: -at only one thought at a time. There are seventeen qualities inherent in the nine substances, viz., colour (Rupa), taste (Rasa), smell (Gandha), touch (Sparsa), numbers (Sankhya) measures (Parimanani), separateness or • dividuality (Prithaktvam), conjunction and di sconjunction in.) (Samyoga-vibhagam), priorityand posterity (Paratva-aparatva), intellection or understanding (Buddhayah), pleasure and pain (Sukha-duhkha), desire and aversion (Ichha-dvesha), and volitions (Prayatnah). Seven others are said to be implied, viz., gravity, fluidity, viscidity, faculty, merit, erit, demerit and sound—makin• twenty-four in all. Sixteen of these qualities belong to material substances. The other eight, viz.. understanding, volition, desire, aversion, pleasure, paint merit and demerit are the properties of the soul. + − HINDU P1-111,0601)11Y---1 + − 199 + − .rd category, Karma or action, consists of five third or throwing upwards, olds of ion, acts, viz., or throwing downwards, contraction, dePress-nn and motion. esensi„ The fourth category, Samanya or generality of nroPer' ties is twofold, viz., (i) higher and lower generality and a) that of genus and species. - The fifth category, Visesha or particularity, belongs to the nine eternal substances of the first category, all of which have an eternal ultimate difference distinguishing each from the others. Therefore, the system is called Vaiseshika. The sixth category, Samavaya or co-inherence, is of only one kind. It is the co-inherence between a substance and its qualities, between a genus or species and its individuals, between any object and the general idea connected with it and is thought to be a real entity. There are four kinds of Abhava, the seventh category, viz., antecedent non-existence, cessation of existence, mutual non-existence and absolute non-existence. Knowledge of the Padarthas Secures Supreme Good Knowledge of the Padarthas is the means of attaining the Supreme Good. The Supreme Good results from the knowledge produced—by a particular + + − + − ci eLl shl a Toise category, Samavaya or co-inherence, is of v The It is the co-inherence between a substance + + + + + + + + + − ly one orl its qualitieg, between a genus or species and its Afidividuals, between any object and the general idea ilicionected with it and is thought to be a real entity_ cThere are four kinds of Abhava, the seventh category, viz., antecedent non-existence, cessation of mutual non-existence and absolute existence, on-existence. Knowledge of the Padarthas Secures Supreme Good Knowledge of the Padarthas is the means of attaining the Supreme Good. The Supreme Good results from the knowledge produced—by a particular Dharma---of the essence of the Padarthas, by means of their resemblances and differences. + + − THE PRINCIPLE OF ADRISHTA AND ITS INADEQUACIES + + − Kanada does not openly refer to God in his Sutras. His belief was that the formation of the world was the result of Adrishta, the unseen force of Karmas or acts. He traces the primal activities of the atoms and souls to the Principle of Adrishta. + − + + + − 200 + + + − ALL ABOUT HINDUISM + + − + + + + + + − ATOMIC THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE + + + + + − In the Vaiseshika system, the formation of the world is supposed to be effected by the aggregation of atoms These atoms are countless and eternal. They are' eternally aggregated, disintegrated and redisintegrated by the power of Adrishta. An atom is defined as `something existing, having no cause, and eternal'. It is less than the least, invisible, indivisible, intangible and imperceptible by the senses. Each atom has a Visesha or eternal essence of its own. The combination of these atoms is first into an aggregate of two (Dvyanu, dyad). Three of them, again combine into a particle, called Trasarenu (Triad), which like a mote in a sunbeam has just sufficient magnitude to be perceptible. There are four classes of Paramanus, vizi, Paramanus of earth, water, fire and air. The individual + − HINDU PHILOSOPHY-1 + + − 201 + + − + + + + + − BIRTH, DEATH AND SALVATION Conjunction of soul with body, sense and life, produced by Dharma and Adharma, is called birth, and disjunction of body and mind produced by them is called death. Moksha consists in the non-existence of conjunction. with the body, when there is, at the same time, no potential body existing and consequently rebirth cannot take place. + − − − − VII1St ti lll,l. 111,1/111. − − •••••• − − ind; and yet capable of apprehension, e, aversion,pleasure, pain, merit and are infinite, ubiquitous or omnipresent − − BONDAGE AND RELEASE Pleasure and pain result from the contact of soul, sense, mind and object. − − A 1, − − )02 − − AF30(1T I IINIMISM − − From pleasure arises desire. From Plea from the enjoyment of garlands, sandal paster and other objects, Raga or desire is successively for pleasure of a similar kind Prothi Or for means of attaining it. From pain caused b or tL y scorpions, thorns and the like, aversion ari2nake. regard to such pain or with regard to its source7s nth A very powerful impression is produced by co or habitual experience of objects, through the infinstail, of which, a sad lover who does not win his mistress his beloved in every object. He who has been bitten i,ees snake beholds snakes everywhere, on account of strong impression regarding that. a The Faults That Lead to Bondage Desire (Raga), aversion (Dvesha) and infatuation (Moha) are called faults (Doshas), as they are incentives to activity which serves to bind the doer to this world, Gautama also says: "Faults have for their characteristic, incitement to activity or worldly occupation" (Nyaya Sutras, I-1-viii). The Knowledge That Results in Release Intuitive knowledge of the Self destroys false knowledge. Consequently, attraction, aversion, stupidly or Moha and other faults vanish. Then activity also disappears. Then birth due to action does not take place. Consequently, pain connected with birth also disappears. − − == The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika == − The Vaiseshika and the Nyaya agree in their essential principles, such as the nature and qualities of the Self and the atomic theory of the universe. The Vaiseshika has, for its chief objective, the analysis of experience. It begins by arranging its enquiries under categories (Padarthas), i.e., enumeration of certain general properties or attributes that may be predicated of existing things. It formulates general conceptions, which apply to things known, whether by the senses or 13sY inference, or by authority.<ref name=":0" /> − − In its early stages, the Vaiśeṣika was an independent philosophy with its own metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, and path to mukti or liberation. Over time, the Vaiśeṣika system became similar in its philosophical procedures, ethical conclusions and in it's theory of liberation to the Nyāya Darshana, but retained its difference in epistemology and metaphysics. Line 149:
Line 151: − + − # Bimal Matilal (1977), A History of Indian Literature - Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, <nowiki>ISBN 978-3447018074</nowiki>, OCLC 489575550+ − # Gopi Kaviraj (1961), Gleanings from the history and bibliography of the Nyaya-Vaisesika literature, Indian Studies: Past & Present, Volume 2, Number 4, OCLC 24469380+
Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्) (view source)
Revision as of 17:12, 30 May 2021
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Vaiseshika or Vaiśeṣika (Samskrit : वैशेषिक) is one of the [[Shad Darshanas|Shad Darsanas]] or the Veda Upangas which exist traditionally since ancient times in India. The Vaiseshika system takes its name from Visesha, or particularity which is the characteristic differential of things. Rishi Kanada is credited as the founder of the Vaiseshika system of philosophy. He is also known by the names, Aulukya and Kasyapa. The aphorisms of Kanada contain the essence of the Vaiseshika philosophy. The principal subject treated therein is Visesha, one of the six Padarthas or categories enumerated by the founder.<ref name=":0">Swami Sivananda, All About HInduism, Page 196-202</ref>
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== The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika ==
The Vaiseshika and the Nyaya agree in their essential principles, such as the nature and qualities of the Self and the atomic theory of the universe. The Vaiseshika has, for its chief objective, the analysis of experience. It begins by arranging its enquiries under categories (Padarthas), i.e., enumeration of certain general properties or attributes that may be predicated of existing things. It formulates general conceptions, which apply to things known, whether by the senses or 13sY inference, or by authority.<ref name=":0" />
== The Aphorisms of Kanada ==
There are ten chapters in Kanada's book. The first chapter deals With the entire group of Padarthas (पदार्थ) or predicables. In the second chapter, Kanada has ascertained substance. In the third chapter, he has given a description of soul and the inner sense. In the fourth chapter, he has discussed the body and its constituents. In the fifth chapter, he has established Karma or action. In the sixth chapter he has considered Dharma or virtue according to scriptures. In the seventh chapter, he has established attribute and Samvaya (co-inherence or combination). In the eighth chapter he has ascertained the manifestation of knowledge, its source, and so on. In the ninth chapter, he has established the particular or concrete understanding. And, in the tenth chapter, he has differences in the attributes of the soul.<ref name=":0" />
There is enumeration of Padarthas (substances) in the beginning. Then there is definition. Then comes examination or demonstration. This system is chiefly concerned with the determination of the Padarthas and yet, Kanada opens the subject with an enquiry into Dharma, because Dharma is at the root of the knowledge of the essence of the Padarthas. The first Sutra is:
यतोऽभ्युदयनिःश्रेयससिद्धि: स धर्म:
(Yatobhyudayanihsreyasa-siddhih so dharmah)
'''''“That, which directs and leads to the attainment of abhyudaya in the world; that shows the pathway to cessation of grieves and pains in toto, and get the one to nihshreyasa thereafter, is Dharma.”'''''<ref name=":1">http://www.gandhitopia.org/profiles/blogs/yato-bhyudaya-nihshreyasa-siddhih-sa-dharmah</ref>
This definition accorded by Maharishi Kanada through this short couplet is considered as one of the best descriptions of ''Dharma'' revealing not only the basic spirit in the root of the word ''Dharma'' itself, but explaining the purpose and importance of ''Dharma'' in life simultaneously. Along with this, Kanada’s definition categorically divulges the eastern viewpoint of ''Dharma'' –the great Indian perspective pertaining to it in particular. It could be well analyzed, comprehended and understood on the basis of the review of just two words incorporated in this statement, which are, in fact, the central points of the whole of the proclamation made by Maharishi Kanada. The reality of the couplet could also be well realized by the review of these two words. The two words emerging predominantly in this couplet are: ''[[Abhyuday (अभ्युदय)|Abhyudaya]]'' and ''[[Nihsreyasa (नि:श्रेयस)|Nihshreyasa]]''. ''Abhyudaya'' signifies rise, progress or development of a human being. It is undoubtedly dedicated to his prosperity. ''Nihshreyasa'' on the other hand divulges eternal bliss –infinite happiness with contentment, which is, in fact, the state of ''Mukti'', ''Moksha'' or the ''Nirvana'' –liberation of soul.<ref name=":1" />
== The Seven Padarthas<ref name=":0" /> ==
A Padartha is an object which can be thought (Artha) and named (Pada). All things which exist, which can be perceived and named, all objects of experience, are Padarthas. Compound substances are dependent and transitory. Simple substances are eternal and independent.
,4i1
As per Vaiseshika, knowledge of the Padarthas is the means of attaining the Supreme Good. The Supreme Good results from the knowledge produced—by a particular Dharma - of the essence of the Padarthas, by means of their resemblances and differences.
The Padarthas of the Vaiseshika are the following:
# Substance (Dravya)
# Quality or property (Guna)
# Action(Karma)
# Generality of properties (Samanya)
# Particularity (Visesha)
# Co-inherence or perpetual intimate relation (Samavaya)
# Non-existence or negation of existence (Abhava).
The first three categories of substance, quality and action have a real objective existence. The next three, viz., generality, particularity and inherence are logical categories. They are products of intellectual discrimination. Kanada enumerated only six categories, the seventh was added by later writers.
=== The Dravyas<ref name=":0" /> ===
Earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, soul and mind are the nine Dravyas or substances. The first four of these and the last are held to be atomic. The first four are both eternal and non-eternal, non-eternal in their various compounds and eternal in their ultimate atoms to which they must be traced back. Mind is an eternal substance. It does not pervade everywhere like the soul. It is atomic. It can admit only one thought at a time.
==== Qualities of Dravyas ====
There are seventeen qualities inherent in the nine substances, viz. colour (Rupa), taste (Rasa), smell (Gandha), touch (Sparsa), numbers (Sankhya), measures (Parimanani), separateness or individuality (Prithaktvam), conjunction and disconjunction (Samyoga-vibhagam), priority and posterity (Paratva-aparatva), intellection or understanding (Buddhayah), pleasure and pain (Sukha-duhkha), desire and aversion (Ichha-dvesha), and volitions (Prayatnah).
Seven others are said to be implied, viz., gravity, fluidity, viscidity, faculty, merit, demerit and sound—making twenty-four in all. Sixteen of these qualities belong to material substances. The other eight, viz.. understanding, volition, desire, aversion, pleasure, pain, merit and demerit are the properties of the soul.
=== Karma ===
Third category, Karma or action, consists of five kinds of viz. elevation or throwing
upwards, depression or throwing downwards, contraction, expansion and motion.
=== Samanya ===
The fourth category, Samanya or generality is twofold, viz., (i) higher and lower
generality and a) that of genus and species.
=== Visesha ===
The fifth category, Visesha or particularity, belongs to the nine eternal substances of the first category, all of which have an eternal ultimate difference distinguishing each from the others. Therefore, the system is called Vaiseshika.
The followers of Kanada introduce God efficient cause of the world. The atoms are th I le tht cause of the universe. 4ter. The unthinking atoms have not the power a intelligence to run this universe in an orderly mad th Surely, the activities of the atoms are regulatedb ners omniscient and omnipotent God. Inference 31 scriptures compel us to admit God. What is tahN intelligence which makes the Adrishta to operate? Thar intelligence is God. The five elements are effects, They at must be preceded by someone who has a knowledge of them. That 'someone' is God. There must be an author for the Vedas. The contents of the Vedas are destitute of error. The author is free from deceit. He must be an omniscient Being. The souls are destitute of intelligence in the state of dissolution. Hence they cannot control the activities of the atoms. There is no source of motion within the atoms. Therefore, there must be a first mover of the atom. That First Mover is the Creator or God.
=== Samavaya ===
The sixth category, Samavaya or co-inherence, is of only one kind. It is the co-inherence between a substance and its qualities, between a genus or species and its individuals, between any object and the general idea connected with it and is thought to be a real entity.
=== Abhava ===
There are four kinds of Abhava, the seventh category, viz., antecedent non-existence, cessation of existence
== The Principle of Adrishta<ref name=":0" /> ==
Kanada does not openly refer to God in his Sutras. His belief was that the formation of the world was the result of Adrishta, the unseen force of Karmas or acts. He traces the primal activities of the atoms and souls to the Principle of Adrishta. The followers of Kanada introduce God as the '''efficient cause''' and atoms as the '''material cause''' of the universe.
== Atomic Theory of the Universe<ref name=":0" /> ==
In the Vaiseshika system, the formation of the world is supposed to be effected by the aggregation of atoms. These atoms are countless and eternal. They are eternally aggregated, disintegrated and redisintegrated by the power of Adrishta. An atom is defined as 'something existing, having no cause, and eternal'. It is less than the least, invisible, indivisible, intangible and imperceptible by the senses. Each atom has a Visesha or eternal essence of its own. The combination of these atoms is first into an aggregate of two (Dvyanu, dyad). Three of them, again combine into a particle, called Trasarenu (Triad), which like a mote in a sunbeam has just sufficient magnitude to be perceptible. There are four classes of Paramanus, vizi, Paramanus of earth, water, fire and air. The individual atoms combine with others, and again disintegrate after some time.
The Vaiseshika cosmogony is dualistic in the sense of assuming the existence of eternal atoms side by side with eternal souls. It has not decided positively the exact relation between soul and matter.
== Body and the Soul<ref name=":0" /> ==
The body is subtle in Pralaya and gross in creation. The time, place and circumstances of birth, family and the span of life are all determined by the Adrishta.
The individual souls are eternal, manifold, eternally separate from one another, and distinct from the body, senses and mind; and yet capable of apprehension, volition, desire, aversion, pleasure, pain, merit and demerit. They are infinite, ubiquitous or omnipresent and diffused everywhere throughout space. The soul and the mind are not objects of perception. The soul is absolutely free from all connections with qualities in the state of Moksha or release. It regains its independence.
== Birth, Death and Salvation<ref name=":0" /> ==
Conjunction of soul with body, sense and life, produced by Dharma and Adharma, is called birth, and disjunction of body and mind produced by them is called death. Moksha consists in the non-existence of conjunction. with the body, when there is, at the same time, no potential body existing and consequently rebirth cannot take place.
== Bondage and Release ==
Pleasure and pain result from the contact of soul, sense, mind and object. From pleasure arises desire. From one pleasure, raga or desire is produced successively for pleasure of a similar kind or for the means of attaining it. From pain due to one cause, aversion arises with regard to such pain or with regard to its source.
,tc,%, time soli . ,1s combine with others, and again disintegrate after me Vaiseshika cosmogony is dualistic in the Sens sliming the existence of eternal atoms ,pith .on between soul and matter. of as eternal souls. It has not decided positively the relat .th etern Ms side by s.de exact 1 e BODY AND SOUL The body is subtle in Pralaya and gross The time, place and circumstances n creation. of bi irth, famil and the span of life are all determined by the Adrishta. y The individual souls are eternal, manifold, eternally separate from one another, and distinct from the body, senses and mind; and yet capable of a volition, desire, aversion, pleasure pprehension, , pain, me a demerit. They are infinite, ubiquitous or omnipresent and diffused everywhere throughout space. A man's soul is as much in New York as in Bombay, although it can only apprehend and feel and act where the body is. The soul and the mind are not objects of perception. The soul is absolutely free from all connections with qualities in the state of Moksha or release. It regains its independence.
=== Faults That Lead to Bondage ===
Desire (Raga), aversion (Dvesha) and infatuation (Moha) are called faults (Doshas), as these bind the doer of an activity to this world.
=== The Knowledge That Results in Release ===
Intuitive knowledge of the Self destroys false knowledge. Consequently, attraction, aversion, stupidly or Moha and other faults vanish. Then activity also disappears. Then birth due to action does not take place. Consequently, pain connected with birth also disappears.
####################################################################################################
In its early stages, the Vaiśeṣika was an independent philosophy with its own metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, and path to mukti or liberation. Over time, the Vaiśeṣika system became similar in its philosophical procedures, ethical conclusions and in it's theory of liberation to the Nyāya Darshana, but retained its difference in epistemology and metaphysics.
* Vaiśeṣika school of philosophy accepts only two reliable means to knowledge: Pratyaksha pramana (perception) and Anumana pramana (inference).
* Vaiśeṣika school of philosophy accepts only two reliable means to knowledge: Pratyaksha pramana (perception) and Anumana pramana (inference).
* Vaiśeṣika considers their scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, and acknowledge that Vedas are the foundation of their siddhantas.
* Vaiśeṣika considers their scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, and acknowledge that Vedas are the foundation of their siddhantas.
# Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975), A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8</nowiki>.
# Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975), A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, <nowiki>ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8</nowiki>.
== Further reading ==
==References==
<references />
[[Category:Darshanas]]