Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)

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Silent adorations to Kanada Rishi, the founder of the Vaiseshika system of philosophy. Rishi Kanada is also known by the names, Aulukya and Kasyapa. The Vaiseshika system takes its name from Viseshc, or particularity which is the characteristic differentia of things. The aphorisms of Kanada contain the essence of the Vaiseshika philosophy. The principal subject treated therein is Visesha, one of the six Padarthas or categories enumerated by the founder.

The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika The Vaiseshika and the Nyaya agree in their essential principles, such as the nature and qualities of the Self and the atomic theory of the universe. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. The Vaiseshika has, for its chief objective, the analysis of experience. It begins by arranging its enquiries under categories (Padarthas), i.e., enumeration of certain genera_ properties or attributes that may be predicated of existing things. It formulates general conceptions, which apply to things known, whether by the senses or 13sY inference, or by authority.

s--\_.,per_iv - i-_____I THE APtioRism 0 There are ten chapters . -,te entire Ic-ANAt•A chapter deals With th in Ran ) „ acla s book The first Predicables. In the sec ,Et our, of p Ascertained substance I °Lncl cha ''' r vadarthas or fourth chapter, he has discus: i nner sense. l'-jdescription of the soul and th_c.“apter, he hasingivtehanse -11 the third Ater, 'anada h constituents. In the fifth chapt "II the /004 and its ma or action. In the sLyth er, he h Kar scriptures. I k2unsidered Dharma or virtue according to chapter, , as established 4 , he has — . In the seventh chapter, he has established attribute and Q (CO-inherence or combination). In the eighth chapter he _......._ oarnavaya has ascertained the manifestation of knowledge, ' it source, and so on. In the ninth chapter, he has established the particular or concrete understanding. And, in the tenth chapter, he has differences in the attributes of the soul. established the There is enumeration of Padarthas (substances i the beginning. Then there is definition. Th ) in Then comes examination or demonstration. This system is chiefly concerned with the determination of the Padarthas and yet, Kanada opens the subject with an enquiry into Dharma, because Dharm.a is at the root of the knowledge of the essence of the Padarthas. The first Sutra is: Yatobhyudayanihsreyasa-siddhih so dharmah—Dharma is that which exalts and bestows the Supreme Good or Moksha (cessation of pain),

THE SEVEN PADARTHAS OR CATEGORIES Padartha means literally the meaning of a word. But hers it denotes a substance discussed in philosophy. A Pnadartha is an object which can be thought (Artha) and parlied (Dada). All things which exist, which can be pearcelved and named, all objects of experience, are darthas. Compound substances are dependent and

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inclependcnt The Packirthas of the Vaiseshika are 111(• Substance (Dravya), (ii) Quality or opci 7 y , Action (Karma), (iv) Generality of properti(:, (sarwit,;, (v) Particularity (Visesha), (vi) Co-iiiherence or intimate rclation (Samavaya), and (vii) Non-c.xist(:riff, negation of existence (Abhava). The first three cat(:gorign of substance, quality and action have a real ohjectiv'i. existence. The next three, viz., generality, particularity' and inherence are logical categories. They are pr(iducts of intellectual discrimination. Kanada enumerated only six categories, the seventh was added by later writfri. Earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, souj and mind are the nine Dravyas or substances. The first four of these and the last are held to be atomic. The first four are both eternal and non-eternal, non-eternal in their various compounds and eternal in their ultimate atoms to which they must be traced back. Mind is an eternal substance. It does not pervade everywhere like the soul. It is atomic. It can admit only one thought at a time. There are seventeen qualities inherent in the nine substances, viz., colour smell

t three, Jogical c ectua1 iscrimination. egories, - the seventh was added by F;irtii, water, fire, air, ether, it/Tie, space, sold mind are the nine Dravyas or substances. The firs't at), of these and the last are held to be atomic. The first f()1, are both eternal and non-eternal, non-eternal in the various compounds and eternal in their ultimate i, atorri, to which they must be traced back. Mind is an eternal substance. It does not Pery everywhere like the soul. It is atomic. It can ad,. adf: -at only one thought at a time. There are seventeen qualities inherent in the nine substances, viz., colour (Rupa), taste (Rasa), smell (Gandha), touch (Sparsa), numbers (Sankhya) measures (Parimanani), separateness or • dividuality (Prithaktvam), conjunction and di sconjunction in.) (Samyoga-vibhagam), priorityand posterity (Paratva-aparatva), intellection or understanding (Buddhayah), pleasure and pain (Sukha-duhkha), desire and aversion (Ichha-dvesha), and volitions (Prayatnah). Seven others are said to be implied, viz., gravity, fluidity, viscidity, faculty, merit, erit, demerit and sound—makin• twenty-four in all. Sixteen of these qualities belong to material substances. The other eight, viz.. understanding, volition, desire, aversion, pleasure, paint merit and demerit are the properties of the soul.

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.rd category, Karma or action, consists of five third or throwing upwards, olds of ion, acts, viz., or throwing downwards, contraction, dePress-nn and motion. esensi„ The fourth category, Samanya or generality of nroPer' ties is twofold, viz., (i) higher and lower generality and a) that of genus and species. - The fifth category, Visesha or particularity, belongs to the nine eternal substances of the first category, all of which have an eternal ultimate difference distinguishing each from the others. Therefore, the system is called Vaiseshika. The sixth category, Samavaya or co-inherence, is of only one kind. It is the co-inherence between a substance and its qualities, between a genus or species and its individuals, between any object and the general idea connected with it and is thought to be a real entity. There are four kinds of Abhava, the seventh category, viz., antecedent non-existence, cessation of existence, mutual non-existence and absolute non-existence. Knowledge of the Padarthas Secures Supreme Good Knowledge of the Padarthas is the means of attaining the Supreme Good. The Supreme Good results from the knowledge produced—by a particular

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ci eLl shl a Toise category, Samavaya or co-inherence, is of v The It is the co-inherence between a substance

ly one orl its qualitieg, between a genus or species and its Afidividuals, between any object and the general idea ilicionected with it and is thought to be a real entity_ cThere are four kinds of Abhava, the seventh category, viz., antecedent non-existence, cessation of mutual non-existence and absolute existence, on-existence. Knowledge of the Padarthas Secures Supreme Good Knowledge of the Padarthas is the means of attaining the Supreme Good. The Supreme Good results from the knowledge produced—by a particular Dharma---of the essence of the Padarthas, by means of their resemblances and differences.

THE PRINCIPLE OF ADRISHTA AND ITS INADEQUACIES

Kanada does not openly refer to God in his Sutras. His belief was that the formation of the world was the result of Adrishta, the unseen force of Karmas or acts. He traces the primal activities of the atoms and souls to the Principle of Adrishta.

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ALL ABOUT HINDUISM

The followers of Kanada introduce God efficient cause of the world. The atoms are th I le tht cause of the universe. 4ter. The unthinking atoms have not the power a intelligence to run this universe in an orderly mad th Surely, the activities of the atoms are regulatedb ners omniscient and omnipotent God. Inference 31 scriptures compel us to admit God. What is tahN intelligence which makes the Adrishta to operate? Thar intelligence is God. The five elements are effects, They at must be preceded by someone who has a knowledge of them. That 'someone' is God. There must be an author for the Vedas. The contents of the Vedas are destitute of error. The author is free from deceit. He must be an omniscient Being. The souls are destitute of intelligence in the state of dissolution. Hence they cannot control the activities of the atoms. There is no source of motion within the atoms. Therefore, there must be a first mover of the atom. That First Mover is the Creator or God.

ATOMIC THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE

In the Vaiseshika system, the formation of the world is supposed to be effected by the aggregation of atoms These atoms are countless and eternal. They are' eternally aggregated, disintegrated and redisintegrated by the power of Adrishta. An atom is defined as `something existing, having no cause, and eternal'. It is less than the least, invisible, indivisible, intangible and imperceptible by the senses. Each atom has a Visesha or eternal essence of its own. The combination of these atoms is first into an aggregate of two (Dvyanu, dyad). Three of them, again combine into a particle, called Trasarenu (Triad), which like a mote in a sunbeam has just sufficient magnitude to be perceptible. There are four classes of Paramanus, vizi, Paramanus of earth, water, fire and air. The individual

परिचय || Introduction

Vaisheshika or Vaiśeṣika (Sanskrit: वैशेषिक) is one of the Shad Darsanas or the Veda Upangas which exist traditionally since ancient times in India. In its early stages, the Vaiśeṣika was an independent philosophy with its own metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, and path to mukti or liberation. Over time, the Vaiśeṣika system became similar in its philosophical procedures, ethical conclusions and in it's theory of liberation to the Nyāya Darshana, but retained its difference in epistemology and metaphysics.

Vaiśeṣika school of philosophy accepts only two reliable means to knowledge: Pratyaksha pramana (perception) and Anumana pramana (inference).
Vaiśeṣika considers their scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, and acknowledge that Vedas are the foundation of their siddhantas.
Vaisheshika school is known for its insights in naturalism or Padarthajnana. It recognizes nine ultimate substances : Five material or perceivable substances and four inanimate or non-material substances. The five material substances are: Earth, water, fire, air and akasha. The four non-material substances are: space, time, soul and mind. Earth, water, fire and air are atomic but akasha is non-atomic and infinite.
It postulated that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), which are indivisible, eternal, neither can be created or destroyed. Thus the Vaishesika explains the atomic theory far before any western discovery.
Human experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence.
Vaisheshika contends that every effect is a fresh creation or a new beginning. Thus this system refutes the theory of pre-existence of the effect in the cause as does the Vedic philosophy.
Kanada's Vaiseshika does not discuss much on God although this system accepts that God (Ishvara ) is the efficient cause of the world. The eternal atoms are the material cause of the world.
According to Vaiśeṣika school, knowledge and liberation are achievable by the complete understanding of the world of experience.

Founder - Kaṇāda Kashyapa

Vaiśeṣika darshana was founded by Kaṇāda Kashyapa around the 2nd century BC.

Vaiseshika Siddhantam

Although the Vaisheshika system developed independently from the Nyaya school of Hinduism, the two became similar and are often studied together. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only two.

Vaiśeṣika school of Hinduism accepted only two reliable means to knowledge - perception and inference.

Vaisheshika espouses a form of atomism, that the reality is composed of four substances (earth, water, air, fire). Each of these four are of two types, explains Ganeri, परमाणु || paramāṇu (atomic) and composite (analogous to molecule).

" An "Anu" is that which is small, indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension. "

" A composite is that which is divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, and even the smallest perceptible thing, namely, a fleck of dust, has parts, which are therefore invisible. "

The Vaiśeṣikas visualized the smallest composite thing as a triad (tryaṇuka) with three parts, each part with a dyad (dyaṇuka). Vaiśeṣikas believed that a dyad has two parts, each of which is an atom. Size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements.

Vaisheshika postulated that what one's experiences is derived from

dravya (substance: a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements),
guna (quality), karma (activity),
samanya (commonness),
vishesha (particularity) and
samavaya (inherence, inseparable connectedness of everything).

Literature of Vaisheshika

The earliest systematic exposition of the Vaisheshika is found in the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of Kaṇāda (or Kaṇabhaksha). This treatise is divided into ten books.

The two commentaries on the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, Rāvaṇabhāṣya and Bhāradvājavṛtti are extant.
Praśastapāda’s Padārthadharmasaṁgraha (c. 4th century) commonly known as bhāṣya of Vaiśeṣika Sūtra, this treatise is basically an independent work on the subject.
Candra’s Daśapadārthaśāstra (648) based on Praśastapāda’s treatise is available only in Chinese translation. The earliest commentary available on Praśastapāda’s treatise is Vyomaśiva’s Vyomavatī (8th century). The other three commentaries are Śridhara’s Nyāyakandalī (991), Udayana’s Kiranāvali (10th century) and Śrivatsa’s Līlāvatī (11th century).
Śivāditya’s Saptapadārthī which also belongs to 11th century, presents the Nyāya and the Vaiśeṣika principles as a part of one whole.
Śaṁkara Miśra’s Upaskāra on Vaiśeṣika Sūtra is also an important work.

The Categories or Padārtha

According to the Vaisheshika school, all things which exist, which can be cognised, and which can be named are padārthas (literal meaning: the meaning of a word), the objects of experience. All objects of experience can be classified into six categories as follows

" 1.Dravya (substance): The substances are conceived as 9 in number. They are, पृथ्वी || pṛthvī (earth), आपः || apa (water), तेजस् || tejas (fire), वायु || vāyu (air), आकाश || ākaśa (ether), काल || kāla (time), दिक् || dik (space), आत्मन || ātman (self or soul) and मनस || manas (mind). The first five are called भूत || bhūtas, the substances having some specific qualities so that they could be perceived by one or the other external senses."

" 2.Guṇa (quality): The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra mentions 17 guṇas (qualities), to which Praśastapāda added another 7. While a substance is capable of existing independently by itself, a guṇa(quality) cannot exist so. The original 17 guṇas (qualities) are, rūpa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell), sparśa (touch), saṁkhyā (number), parimāṇa (size/dimension/quantity), pṛthaktva (individuality), saṁyoga (conjunction/accompaniments), vibhāga (disjunction), paratva (priority), aparatva (posteriority), buddhi (knowledge), sukha (pleasure), duḥkha (pain), icchā (desire), dveṣa (aversion) and prayatna (effort). To these Praśastapāda added gurutva (heaviness), dravatva (fluidity), sneha (viscosity), dharma (merit), adharma (demerit), śabda (sound) and saṁskāra (faculty)."

" 3.Karma (activity): The karmas (activities) like guṇas (qualities) have no separate existence, they belong to the substances. But while a quality is a permanent feature of a substance, an activity is a transient one. Ākāśa (ether), kāla (time), dik (space) and ātman (self), though substances, are devoid of karma (activity)."

" 4.Sāmānya (generality): Since there are plurality of substances, there will be relations among them. When a property is found common to many substances, it is called sāmānya."

" 5.Viśeṣa (particularity): By means of viśeṣa, we are able to perceive substances as different from one another. As the ultimate atoms are innumerable so are the viśeṣas."

" 6.Samavāya (inherence): Kaṇāda defined samavāya as the relation between the cause and the effect. Praśastapāda defined it as the relationship existing between the substances that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained. The relation of samavāya is not perceivable but only inferable from the inseparable connection of the substances."

Later Vaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara and Udayana and Śivāditya) added one more category abhava (non-existence). The first three categories are defined as Artha (which can perceived) and they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as budhyapekṣam (product of intellectual discrimination) and they are logical categories.

The atomic theory

According to the Vaiśeṣika school, the trasareṇu are the smallest mahat (perceivable) particles and defined as tryaṇukas (triads). These are made of three parts, each of which are defined as dvyaṇuka (dyad). The dvyaṇukas are conceived as made of two parts, each of which are defined as paramāṇu (atom). The paramāṇus (atoms) are indivisible and eternal, they can neither be created nor destroyed. Each paramāṇu (atom) possesses its own distinct viśeṣa (individuality).

The measure of the partless atoms is known as parimaṇḍala parimāṇa. It is eternal and it cannot generate the measure of any other substance. Its measure is its own absolutely.

Notes

Amita Chatterjee (2011), Nyāya-vaiśeṣika Philosophy, The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195328998.003.0012
DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer, ISBN 978-1-4419-8109-7
Analytical philosophy in early modern India J Ganeri, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
M Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120810860
MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2)
B Matilal (1992), Perception: An Essay in Indian Theories of Knowledge, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198239765

References

Chattopadhyaya, D. (1986), Indian Philosophy: A Popular Introduction, People’s Publishing House, New Delhi, ISBN 81-7007-023-6.
Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975), A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8.

Vaiseshika Darshana (वैशेषिकदर्शनम्)

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