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(i) the beginning of a season, (vi) the length of a day.<ref>K. S. Shukla, [https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol04_1And2_11_KSShukla.pdf Astronomy in ancient and medieval India], Indian Journal of History of Science, Vol.4, Nos. 1-2 (1969), pp.99-106.</ref>

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Ancient Indian astronomy may be classified into two main categories:

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(1) the vedic astronomy and

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(2) the post vedic astronomy.

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The vedic astronomy is the astronomy of the vedic period, i.e., the astronomy found in the vedic saṃhitās and brāhmaṇas and allied literature. The principal avocation of the people in the vedic times being the performance of the vedic sacrifices at the times prescribed by the śāstras, it was necessary to have accurate knowledge of the science of time so that the times prescribed for performing the various vedic sacrifices could be correctly predicted well in advance. Astronomy in those times, therefore, was essentially the science of time-determination. It centred round the Sun and Moon and its aim was to study the natural divisions of time caused by the motion of the Sun and Moon, such as days, months, seasons, and years, special attention being paid to the study of the times of occurrence of new moons, full moons, equinoxes, and solstices.<ref name=":1" />

The day, called vāsara or ahan in the vedic literature, was reckoned from sunrise to sunrise. The variability of its length was known. The Ṛgveda (8. 48. 7) invoking Somarāja says: “O Somarāja, prolong thou our lives just as the Sun increases the length of the days.” <blockquote>सोम राजन्प्र ण आयूंषि तारीरहानीव सूर्यो वासराणि ॥७॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 8, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AE.%E0%A5%AA%E0%A5%AE Sukta 48].</ref></blockquote>Six days were taken to form a ṣaḍaha (six-day week); 5 ṣaḍahas, a month; and 12 months, a year. As to the names of the six days of a ṣaḍaha, there is no reference in the vedic literature. However, the six-day week was later replaced by the present seven day week (saptāha) which had attained popularity and was in general use at the time of composition of the Atharva-jyautiṣa.

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The Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa (3. 9. 22) calls the year “the day of the gods”, the gods being supposed to reside at the north pole.<blockquote>अमुं तैः । अनवरुद्धो वा एतस्य संवत्सर इत्याहुः । य इतेतश्चातुर्मास्यानि संवत्सरं प्रयुङ्क्त इति । एतावान्वै संवत्सरः । यच्चातुर्मास्यानि । यदेते चातुर्मास्याः पशव आलभ्यन्ते । प्रत्यक्षमेव तैः संवत्सरं यजमानोऽवरुन्धे । वि वा एष प्रजया पशुभिरृध्यते । यः संवत्सरं प्रयुङ्क्ते । संवत्सरः सुवर्गो लोकः २<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Prapathaka 9].</ref></blockquote>The year was supposed to consist of six seasons and each season of two (solar) months. The relation between the seasons and months was as shown in Table 1.

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{| class="wikitable"

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|+Relation between Vedic seasons and months<ref name=":1" />

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!Seasons

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!Months

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|

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# Vasanta (Spring)

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|

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# Madhu

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# Madhava

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|-

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|2. Grishma (Summer)

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|3. Shukra

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4. Shuchi

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|-

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|3. Varsha (Rainy)

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|5. Nabhas

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6. Nabhasya

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|-

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|4. Sharada (Autumn)

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|7. Isha

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8. Urja

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|-

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|5. Hemanta (Winter)

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|9. Sahas

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10. Sahasya

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|-

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|6. Shishira (Chilly Winter)

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|11. Tapas

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12. Tapasya

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|}

Two (solar) months commencing with the winter solstice were called Śiśira; the next two months, Vasanta; and so on. Sometimes Śiśira and Hemanta were treated as one season and the number of seasons was taken as five (Aitareyabrāhmaṇa, 1. 1<ref>Aitareya brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE) Panchika 1].</ref>; Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa, 2. 7. 10<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 2, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Prapathaka 7].</ref>)

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Periods bigger than a year are also met with in the vedic literature. They were called yuga. One such yuga consisted of 5 solar years. The five constituent years of this yuga were called saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, anuvatsara and idvatsara. The Ṛgveda (7. 103. 7–8) mentions two of these, viz. saṃvatsara and parivatsara. <blockquote>ब्राह्मणासो अतिरात्रे न सोमे सरो न पूर्णमभितो वदन्तः । संवत्सरस्य तदहः परि ष्ठ यन्मण्डूकाः प्रावृषीणं बभूव ॥७॥</blockquote><blockquote>ब्राह्मणासः सोमिनो वाचमक्रत ब्रह्म कृण्वन्तः परिवत्सरीणम् । अध्वर्यवो घर्मिणः सिष्विदाना आविर्भवन्ति गुह्या न के चित् ॥८॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Sukta 103].</ref></blockquote>The Taittirīya-saṃhitā (5. 5. 7. 1–3)<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 5, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AB/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB Prapathaka 5].</ref>, the Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā (27. 45; 30. 16), and the Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa (3. 4. 11; 3. 10. 4), mention all the five names, with some alteration. <blockquote>यम्यै यमसूम् । अथर्वभ्योऽवतोकाम् । संवत्सराय पर्यारिणीम् । परिवत्सरायाविजाताम् । इदावत्सरायापस्कद्वरीम् । इद्वत्सरायातीत्वरीम् । वत्सराय विजर्जराम् । सर्वंत्सराय पलिक्नीम् । वनाय वनपम् । अन्यतोऽरण्याय दावपम् १<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>संवत्सरोऽसि परिवत्सरोऽसि । इदावत्सरोऽसीदुवत्सरोऽसि । इद्वत्सरोऽसि वत्सरोऽसि ।<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>The Taittirīyasaṃhitā calls them saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, iduvatsara, and vatsara; the Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, idvatsara, and vatsara, and the Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, idvatsara, and vatsara respectively.

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The names Kṛta, Tretā, Dvāpara, and Kali which are used in later astronomy as the names of longer yugas are also used in the vedic literature to indicate different grades, each inferior to the preceding. But Dvāpara, as a unit of time, is found to be used in the Gopatha-brāhmaṇa (1. 1. 28).<blockquote>1.1.28 असमीक्ष्यप्रवल्हितानि श्रूयन्ते द्वापरादाव् ऋषीणाम् एकदेशो दोषपतिर् इह चिन्ताम् आपेदे त्रिभिः सोमः पातव्यः समाप्तम् इव भवति...</blockquote>The earliest work which exclusively deals with vedic astronomy is the Vedāṅga- jyautiṣa. It is available in two recensions, Ārca-jyautisa and Yājuṣajyautiṣa. Both the recensions are essentially the same; a majority of the verses occurring in them being identical. The date of this work is controversial, but the situation of the Sun and Moon at the beginning of the yuga of five years mentioned in this work, according to T. S. Kuppanna Sastry, existed about 1150 bc or about 1370 bc, according as the first point of nakṣatra Śraviṣṭhā stated there means the first point of the nakṣatra-segment Śraviṣṭhā or the nakṣatra-group Śraviṣṭhā (Sastry 1984, 3, p. 13). This work defines jyotiṣa (astronomy) as the science of time-determination and deals with months, years, muhūrtas, rising nakṣatras, new moons, full moons, days, seasons, and solstices. It states rules to determine the nakṣatra occupied by the Sun or Moon, the time of the Sun’s or Moon’s entry into a nakṣatra, the duration of the Sun’s or Moon’s stay in a nakṣatra, the number of new moons or full moons that occurred since the beginning of the yuga, the position of the Sun or Moon at the end of a new moon or full moon day or tithi, and similar other things. It gives also the measure of the water-clock, which was used to measure time, and tells when an intercalary month was to be added or a tithi was to be omitted. In short, it gives all necessary information needed by the vedic priest to predict times for the vedic sacrifices and other religious observances.

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The names Kṛta, Tretā, Dvāpara, and Kali which are used in later astronomy as the names of longer yugas are also used in the vedic literature to indicate different grades, each inferior to the preceding. But Dvāpara, as a unit of time, is found to be used in the Gopatha-brāhmaṇa (1. 1. 28).<blockquote>1.1.28 असमीक्ष्यप्रवल्हितानि श्रूयन्ते द्वापरादाव् ऋषीणाम् एकदेशो दोषपतिर् इह चिन्ताम् आपेदे त्रिभिः सोमः पातव्यः समाप्तम् इव भवति...</blockquote>The earliest work which exclusively deals with vedic astronomy is the Vedāṅga- jyautiṣa. It is available in two recensions, Ārca-jyautisa and Yājuṣajyautiṣa. Both the recensions are essentially the same; a majority of the verses occurring in them being identical. The date of this work is controversial, but the situation of the Sun and Moon at the beginning of the yuga of five years mentioned in this work, according to T. S. Kuppanna Sastry, existed about 1150 bc or about 1370 bc, according as the first point of nakṣatra Śraviṣṭhā stated there means the first point of the nakṣatra-segment Śraviṣṭhā or the nakṣatra-group Śraviṣṭhā (Sastry 1984, 3, p. 13).

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This work defines jyotiṣa (astronomy) as the science of time-determination and deals with months, years, muhūrtas, rising nakṣatras, new moons, full moons, days, seasons, and solstices. It states rules to determine the nakṣatra occupied by the Sun or Moon, the time of the Sun’s or Moon’s entry into a nakṣatra, the duration of the Sun’s or Moon’s stay in a nakṣatra, the number of new moons or full moons that occurred since the beginning of the yuga, the position of the Sun or Moon at the end of a new moon or full moon day or tithi, and similar other things. It gives also the measure of the water-clock, which was used to measure time, and tells when an intercalary month was to be added or a tithi was to be omitted. In short, it gives all necessary information needed by the vedic priest to predict times for the vedic sacrifices and other religious observances.

The five-year yuga of the Vedāṅga-jyautiṣa contained 61 civil, 62 lunar, and 67 sidereal months. The year consisted of 366 civil days which were reckoned from sunrise to sunrise. After every thirty lunar months one intercalary month was inserted to bring about concordance between solar and lunar years. Similarly, to equate the number of tithis and civil days in the yuga of five solar years, the thirty full moon tithis which ended between sunrise and midday were omitted. There were six seasons of equal duration in every year, each new season beginning after every 61 days. Besides tithis and nakṣatras, the yoga called Vyatīpāta was also in use.

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The Vedāṅga-jyautiṣa astronomy suffered from two main defects. Since there are actually 1826.2819 days in a yuga of five solar (sidereal) years and not 1830 as stated in the Vedāṅga-jyautiṣa, therefore if one yuga was taken to commence at a winter solstice the next one commenced about four days later than the next winter solstice and not at the next winter solstice. Similarly, since there are actually 1830.8961 days in a period of 62 lunar months and not 1830 as stated in the Vedāṅga-jyautiṣa, therefore there was a deficit of about one tithi in the yuga of five solar years. These discrepancies must have been rectified but we do not know when and how this was done.

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There is one more work on jyotiṣa belonging to the later vedic period. It is known as Atharva-jyautiṣa. This work describes the muhūrtas, tithis, karaṇas, nakṣatras, and week days, and prescribes the deeds that should be performed in them. The names of the lords of the week days stated in this work viz. Āditya (Sun), Soma (Moon), Bhauma (the son of Earth), Bṛhaspati, Bhārgava (the son of Bhṛgu), and Śanaiścara (the slow-moving planet), are undoubtedly of Indian origin and must have been in use in India from very early times.6<ref>Kolachana, Aditya & Mahesh, Kaluva & Ramasubramanian, K.. (2019). Main characteristics and achievements of ancient Indian astronomy in historical perspective. 10.1007/978-981-13-7326-8_24. </ref>

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There is one more work on jyotiṣa belonging to the later vedic period. It is known as Atharva-jyautiṣa. This work describes the muhūrtas, tithis, karaṇas, nakṣatras, and week days, and prescribes the deeds that should be performed in them. The names of the lords of the week days stated in this work viz. Āditya (Sun), Soma (Moon), Bhauma (the son of Earth), Bṛhaspati, Bhārgava (the son of Bhṛgu), and Śanaiścara (the slow-moving planet), are undoubtedly of Indian origin and must have been in use in India from very early times.6<ref name=":1">Kolachana, Aditya & Mahesh, Kaluva & Ramasubramanian, K.. (2019). Main characteristics and achievements of ancient Indian astronomy in historical perspective. 10.1007/978-981-13-7326-8_24. </ref>

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