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Line 43: − + − This year of vedic astronomy seems to have been a seasonal or tropical one. Therefore, in the early stages, the names of the seasons were used as synonyms of a year.+ − − but in due course it was used in the sense of a sidereal year. − − Line 84:
Line 80: − Two (solar) months commencing with the winter solstice were called Śiśira; the next two months, Vasanta; and so on. Sometimes Śiśira and Hemanta were treated as one season and the number of seasons was taken as five (Aitareyabrāhmaṇa, 1. 1<ref>Aitareya brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE) Panchika 1].</ref>; Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa, 2. 7. 10<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 2, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Prapathaka 7].</ref>) − − In order to preserve correspondence between lunar and solar years, intercalary months were inserted at regular intervals. Mention of the intercalary month is made in the Ṛgveda (1. 25. 8), but how it was arrived at and where in the scheme of months it was introduced in that time is not known.<blockquote>वेद मासो धृतव्रतो द्वादश प्रजावतः । वेदा य उपजायते ॥८॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AB Sukta 25].</ref></blockquote>There is evidence to show that to make the lunar year correspond to the solar year 12 days were intercalated after every lunar year and one month was dropped after every 40 years.5 (5Law, N. N., Age of the Ṛgveda, pp. 20, 28–29.) At a later stage this correspondence was established by evolving a cycle of five solar years with 62 lunar months. This cycle was called a yuga.<ref name=":2" /> − The Vedāṅga-jyautiṣa prescribes insertion of an intercalary month after every 30 lunar months (Yājuṣa-jyautiṣa, 37). Thus, a year sometimes contained 12 lunar months and sometimes 13 lunar months. + + − + − In later works the synodic month with two saṃkrantis is called aṃhaspati, the synodic month without any saṃkrānti, occurring before it, is called saṃsarpa, and the synodic month without any saṃkrānti occurring after it is called adhimāsa (intercalary month, Tantrasaṃgraha i. 8)+ − Originally the lunar (or synodic) months Caitra etc. were named after the nakshatras occupied by the Moon at the time of full moon. But in due course they were linked with the solar months. Thus, the lunar month (reckoned from one new moon to the next) in which the Sun entered the sign Aries was called Caitra or Madhu; that in which the Sun entered the sign Taurus was called Vaiśākha or Mādhava; and so on. The lunar month in which the Sun did not enter a new sign was treated as an intercalary month.+ + − Periods bigger than a year are also met with in the vedic literature. They were called yuga. One such yuga consisted of 5 solar years. The five constituent years of this yuga were called saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, anuvatsara and idvatsara. The Ṛgveda (7. 103. 7–8) mentions two of these, viz. saṃvatsara and parivatsara. <blockquote>ब्राह्मणासो अतिरात्रे न सोमे सरो न पूर्णमभितो वदन्तः । संवत्सरस्य तदहः परि ष्ठ यन्मण्डूकाः प्रावृषीणं बभूव ॥७॥</blockquote><blockquote>ब्राह्मणासः सोमिनो वाचमक्रत ब्रह्म कृण्वन्तः परिवत्सरीणम् । अध्वर्यवो घर्मिणः सिष्विदाना आविर्भवन्ति गुह्या न के चित् ॥८॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Sukta 103].</ref></blockquote>The Taittirīya-saṃhitā (5. 5. 7. 1–3)<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 5, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AB/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB Prapathaka 5].</ref>, the Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā (27. 45; 30. 16), and the Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa (3. 4. 11; 3. 10. 4), mention all the five names, with some alteration. <blockquote>यम्यै यमसूम् । अथर्वभ्योऽवतोकाम् । संवत्सराय पर्यारिणीम् । परिवत्सरायाविजाताम् । इदावत्सरायापस्कद्वरीम् । इद्वत्सरायातीत्वरीम् । वत्सराय विजर्जराम् । सर्वंत्सराय पलिक्नीम् । वनाय वनपम् । अन्यतोऽरण्याय दावपम् १<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>संवत्सरोऽसि परिवत्सरोऽसि । इदावत्सरोऽसीदुवत्सरोऽसि । इद्वत्सरोऽसि वत्सरोऽसि ।<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>The Taittirīyasaṃhitā calls them saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, iduvatsara, and vatsara; the Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, idvatsara, and vatsara, and the Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, idvatsara, and vatsara respectively. +
Vaidika Kala Mapana (वैदिककालमापनम्) (view source)
Revision as of 23:59, 9 April 2020
, 23:59, 9 April 2020→Seasons: Editing
== Year in Vedic Literature ==
== Year in Vedic Literature ==
In the vedic literature, the year, generally called by the terms sama, vatsara, and hayana, was measured from one winter solstice to the next.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> In fact, Kaushitaki brahmana (19.3) gives an interesting account of how the year-long yajna commenced at one winter solstice and continued until the next. It says, “On the new moon of Magha, the Sun rests, about to turn northwards. The hotas also rest, about to begin with the introductory Atiratra. Thus, for the first time, the hotas obtain the Sun. On him, they lay hold with the Chaturvimsha rite; that is why the laying hold rite has that name. The Sun then goes north for six months, while the hotas follow him with six day rites in continuation. Having gone north for six months, the Sun stands still, about to turn southwards. The hotas also rest, about to begin with the Vishnuvanta (summer solstice) day. Thus, for the second time, they obtain the Sun. The Sun then goes south for six months and the hotas follow him with six day rites in reverse order. Having gone south for six months, the Sun stands still, being about to turn north and the hotas also rest, about to begin with the Mahavrata day. Thus, they obtain the Sun for the third time."<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">Kaushitaki brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 19].</ref>
In the vedic literature, the year, generally called by the terms sama, vatsara, and hayana, was measured from one winter solstice to the next. However, in due course, it was used in the sense of a sidereal year.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> In fact, the Kaushitaki brahmana (19.3) gives an interesting account of how the year-long yajna commenced at one winter solstice and continued until the next. It says, “On the new moon of Magha, the Sun rests, about to turn northwards. The hotas also rest, about to begin with the introductory Atiratra. Thus, for the first time, the hotas obtain the Sun. On him, they lay hold with the Chaturvimsha rite; that is why the laying hold rite has that name. The Sun then goes north for six months, while the hotas follow him with six day rites in continuation. Having gone north for six months, the Sun stands still, about to turn southwards. The hotas also rest, about to begin with the Vishnuvanta (summer solstice) day. Thus, for the second time, they obtain the Sun. The Sun then goes south for six months and the hotas follow him with six day rites in reverse order. Having gone south for six months, the Sun stands still, being about to turn north and the hotas also rest, about to begin with the Mahavrata day. Thus, they obtain the Sun for the third time."<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">Kaushitaki brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 19].</ref>
In this context, it is worth observing that the Taittiriya brahmana (3. 9. 22) calls the year “the day of the deities” who are supposed to reside at the north pole.<blockquote>एकं वा एतद्देवानामहः । यत्संवत्सरः ।<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Prapathaka 9].</ref> ''ekaṁ vā etaddevānāmahaḥ । yatsaṁvatsaraḥ ।''</blockquote>
In this context, it is worth observing that the Taittiriya brahmana (3. 9. 22) calls the year “the day of the deities” who are supposed to reside at the north pole.<blockquote>एकं वा एतद्देवानामहः । यत्संवत्सरः ।<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AF Prapathaka 9].</ref> ''ekaṁ vā etaddevānāmahaḥ । yatsaṁvatsaraḥ ।''</blockquote>
=== Seasons ===
=== Seasons ===
The year of vedic astronomy seems to have been a seasonal or tropical one. Therefore, in the early stages, the names of the seasons were used as synonyms of a year. The year consisted of six seasons and each season lasted for a duration of two solar months. The two solar months commencing with the winter solstice were called Shishira; the next two months, Vasanta; and so on. According to the Aitareya brahmana (1.1) and Taittiriya brahmana (2.7.10), sometimes Shishira and Hemanta were treated as one season and the number of seasons was taken as five.<blockquote>''द्वा''दश मासाः पञ्चर्तवो हेमन्तशिशिरयोः समासेन तावान्संवत्सरः |<ref>Aitareya brahmana, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A5%A7_(%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE) Panchika 1].</ref>''dvādaśa māsāḥ pañcartavō hēmantaśiśirayōḥ samāsēna tāvānsaṁvatsaraḥ |''</blockquote><blockquote>पञ्च वा ऋतवः संवत्सरः । ऋतुष्वेव संवत्सरे प्रतितिष्ठति ।<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 2, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Prapathaka 7].</ref>''pañca vā r̥tavaḥ saṁvatsaraḥ । r̥tuṣvēva saṁvatsarē pratitiṣṭhati ।''</blockquote>The relation between the seasons and months was as follows:
The year was supposed to consist of six seasons and each season of two (solar) months. The relation between the seasons and months was as shown in Table 1.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Relation between Vedic seasons and months<ref name=":1" />
|+Relation between Vedic seasons and months<ref name=":1" />
12. Tapasya
12. Tapasya
|}
|}
=== Lunar and Solar Year ===
Just as there were Lunar months and Solar months, there was also the concept of a Lunar year and a Solar year. And in order to preserve correspondence between lunar and solar years, intercalary months were inserted at regular intervals. It is said that, the mention of the intercalary month is made in the Rgveda (1. 25. 8<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AB Sukta 25].</ref>), but how it was arrived at and where in the scheme of months it was introduced in that time is not known.<ref name=":1" /> Prof K. S. Shukla mentions that there is evidence to show that to make the lunar year correspond to the solar year, 12 days were intercalated after every lunar year and one month was dropped after every 40 years.<ref name=":2" />
The Taittirīya-saṃhitā (5. 6. 7<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 5, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AB/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Prapathaka 6]. </ref>) refers to 12 as well as 13 months of a year and calls the thirteenth (intercalary) month by the names saṃsarpa and aṃhaspati (1. 4. 14).<blockquote>1.4.14 अनुवाक 14 ऋतुग्रहाः</blockquote><blockquote>1 मधुश् च माधवश् च शुक्रश् च शुचिश् च नभश् च नभस्यश् चेषश् चोर्जश् च सहश् च सहस्यश् च तपश् च तपस्यश् च । उपयामगृहीतो ऽसि सꣳसर्पो ऽसि । अꣳहस्पत्याय त्वा ॥<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref> </blockquote>The Vājasaneyī-saṃhitā (7. 30; 22. 31) calls the intercalary month on one occasion by the name aṃhasaspati and on another by the name malimluca (22. 30).
The Taittiriya samhita (5. 6. 7<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 5, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AB/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Prapathaka 6]. </ref>) refers to 12 as well as 13 months of a year and calls the thirteenth (intercalary) month by the names Samsarpa and Amhaspati (1. 4. 14).<blockquote>1 मधुश् च माधवश् च शुक्रश् च शुचिश् च नभश् च नभस्यश् चेषश् चोर्जश् च सहश् च सहस्यश् च तपश् च तपस्यश् च । उपयामगृहीतो ऽसि सꣳसर्पो ऽसि । अꣳहस्पत्याय त्वा ॥<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 1, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''1 madhuś ca mādhavaś ca śukraś ca śuciś ca nabhaś ca nabhasyaś cēṣaś cōrjaś ca sahaś ca sahasyaś ca tapaś ca tapasyaś ca । upayāmagr̥hītō 'si saꣳsarpō 'si । aꣳhaspatyāya tvā ॥''</blockquote>While the Vajasaneyi samhita (7. 30; 22. 31) calls the intercalary month on one occasion by the name Amhasaspati and on another by the name malimlucha (22. 30). <blockquote>उपयामगृहीतो स्य् अꣳहसस्पतये त्वा ॥7. 30||<ref>Shukla Yajurveda, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Adhyaya 7].</ref> ''upayāmagr̥hītō sy aꣳhasaspatayē tvā ॥7. 30||''</blockquote><blockquote>तपस्याय स्वाहाꣳहसस्पतये स्वाहा ॥22. 31||<ref name=":4">Shukla Yajurveda, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 22].</ref> ''tapasyāya svāhāꣳhasaspatayē svāhā ॥22. 31||''</blockquote><blockquote>मलिम्लुचाय स्वाहा ||22. 30||<ref name=":4" /> ''malimlucāya svāhā ||22. 30||''</blockquote>While, according to later works (Tantrasamgraha), Amhaspati referred to the synodic month with two samkrantis, the synodic month without any Samkranti, occurring before it, is called Samsarpa and the synodic month without any Samkranti occurring after it is called Adhimasa (intercalary month).
By the time of the Vedanga jyotisha, insertion of an intercalary month after every 30 lunar months was prescribed (Yajusha jyotisha 37). Thus, a year sometimes contained 12 lunar months and sometimes 13 lunar months. Then, at a later stage the correspondence between the lunar and solar year was established by evolving a cycle of five solar years with 62 lunar months. And this cycle was called a yuga.<ref name=":2" />
== Yuga in Vedic Literature ==
Periods bigger than a year are also met with in the vedic literature. They were called yuga. One such yuga consisted of 5 solar years. The five constituent years of this yuga were called Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idavatsara, Anuvatsara and Idvatsara.
Two of these names viz. Samvatsara and Parivatsara find mention in the Rgveda (7. 103. 7–8),<blockquote>ब्राह्मणासो अतिरात्रे न सोमे सरो न पूर्णमभितो वदन्तः । संवत्सरस्य तदहः परि ष्ठ यन्मण्डूकाः प्रावृषीणं बभूव ॥७॥</blockquote><blockquote>ब्राह्मणासः सोमिनो वाचमक्रत ब्रह्म कृण्वन्तः परिवत्सरीणम् । अध्वर्यवो घर्मिणः सिष्विदाना आविर्भवन्ति गुह्या न के चित् ॥८॥<ref>Rgveda, Mandala 7, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AD.%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%A9 Sukta 103].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>''brāhmaṇāsō atirātrē na sōmē sarō na pūrṇamabhitō vadantaḥ । saṁvatsarasya tadahaḥ pari ṣṭha yanmaṇḍūkāḥ prāvr̥ṣīṇaṁ babhūva ॥7॥''</blockquote><blockquote>''brāhmaṇāsaḥ sōminō vācamakrata brahma kr̥ṇvantaḥ parivatsarīṇam । adhvaryavō gharmiṇaḥ siṣvidānā āvirbhavanti guhyā na kē cit ॥8॥''</blockquote>The Taittirīya-saṃhitā (5. 5. 7. 1–3)<ref>Taittiriya Samhita, Kanda 5, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AB/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AB Prapathaka 5].</ref>, the Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā (27. 45; 30. 16), and the Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa (3. 4. 11; 3. 10. 4), mention all the five names, with some alteration. <blockquote>यम्यै यमसूम् । अथर्वभ्योऽवतोकाम् । संवत्सराय पर्यारिणीम् । परिवत्सरायाविजाताम् । इदावत्सरायापस्कद्वरीम् । इद्वत्सरायातीत्वरीम् । वत्सराय विजर्जराम् । सर्वंत्सराय पलिक्नीम् । वनाय वनपम् । अन्यतोऽरण्याय दावपम् १<ref>Taittiriya brahmana, Kanda 3, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AA Prapathaka 4].</ref></blockquote><blockquote>संवत्सरोऽसि परिवत्सरोऽसि । इदावत्सरोऽसीदुवत्सरोऽसि । इद्वत्सरोऽसि वत्सरोऽसि ।<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>The Taittirīyasaṃhitā calls them saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, iduvatsara, and vatsara; the Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, idvatsara, and vatsara, and the Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa saṃvatsara, parivatsara, idāvatsara, idvatsara, and vatsara respectively.
The names Kṛta, Tretā, Dvāpara, and Kali which are used in later astronomy as the names of longer yugas are also used in the vedic literature to indicate different grades, each inferior to the preceding. But Dvāpara, as a unit of time, is found to be used in the Gopatha-brāhmaṇa (1. 1. 28).<blockquote>1.1.28 असमीक्ष्यप्रवल्हितानि श्रूयन्ते द्वापरादाव् ऋषीणाम् एकदेशो दोषपतिर् इह चिन्ताम् आपेदे त्रिभिः सोमः पातव्यः समाप्तम् इव भवति...</blockquote>The five-year yuga of the Vedāṅga-jyautiṣa contained 61 civil, 62 lunar, and 67 sidereal months. The year consisted of 366 civil days which were reckoned from sunrise to sunrise. After every thirty lunar months one intercalary month was inserted to bring about concordance between solar and lunar years. Similarly, to equate the number of tithis and civil days in the yuga of five solar years, the thirty full moon tithis which ended between sunrise and midday were omitted. There were six seasons of equal duration in every year, each new season beginning after every 61 days. Besides tithis and nakshatras, the yoga called Vyatīpāta was also in use.
The names Kṛta, Tretā, Dvāpara, and Kali which are used in later astronomy as the names of longer yugas are also used in the vedic literature to indicate different grades, each inferior to the preceding. But Dvāpara, as a unit of time, is found to be used in the Gopatha-brāhmaṇa (1. 1. 28).<blockquote>1.1.28 असमीक्ष्यप्रवल्हितानि श्रूयन्ते द्वापरादाव् ऋषीणाम् एकदेशो दोषपतिर् इह चिन्ताम् आपेदे त्रिभिः सोमः पातव्यः समाप्तम् इव भवति...</blockquote>The five-year yuga of the Vedāṅga-jyautiṣa contained 61 civil, 62 lunar, and 67 sidereal months. The year consisted of 366 civil days which were reckoned from sunrise to sunrise. After every thirty lunar months one intercalary month was inserted to bring about concordance between solar and lunar years. Similarly, to equate the number of tithis and civil days in the yuga of five solar years, the thirty full moon tithis which ended between sunrise and midday were omitted. There were six seasons of equal duration in every year, each new season beginning after every 61 days. Besides tithis and nakshatras, the yoga called Vyatīpāta was also in use.