Changes

The Vedas have been sub classified into – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads.<ref name=":0">A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0595384556</nowiki>, pages 8-14</ref> The Samhitas are sometimes identified as ''karma-kanda'' (कर्म खण्ड, action/ritual-related section), while the Upanishads are identified as ''jnana-kanda'' (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related section).<ref name=":0" /> The Aranyakas and Brahmanas are variously classified, sometimes as the ceremonial ''karma-kanda'', other times (or parts of them) as the ''jnana-kanda''.

 

The Vedas have been divided into four styles of texts – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas and the Upanishads.<ref name=":0">A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, <nowiki>ISBN 978-0595384556</nowiki>, pages 8-14</ref> The Samhitas are sometimes identified as ''karma-kanda'' (कर्म खण्ड, action/ritual-related section), while the Upanishads are identified as''jnana-kanda'' (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related section).<ref name=":0" /> The Aranyakas and Brahmanas are variously classified, sometimes as the ceremonial ''karma-kanda'', other times (or parts of them) as the ''jnana-kanda''.

Another opinion states: "The ''Samhitas'' and the ''Brahmanas'' form the ''Karma''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They are apparently concerned with the ceremonial rites and rituals. The ''Aranyakas'' and the Upanishads form the ''Gyan''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy and spiritualism.<ref name=":1"><nowiki>http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm</nowiki>, 6th Paragraph</ref>

Another opinion states: "The ''Samhitas'' and the ''Brahmanas'' form the ''Karma''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They are apparently concerned with the ceremonial rites and rituals. The ''Aranyakas'' and the Upanishads form the ''Gyan''-''Kanda'' segment of the Vedas. They explicitly focus on the philosophy and spiritualism.<ref name=":1"><nowiki>http://indianscriptures.50webs.com/partveda.htm</nowiki>, 6th Paragraph</ref>

The Upanishads are the concluding segments, available at the end of the Vedas, hence they are referred to as the ''Vedanta''. The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and  ‘''Anta’''. The word ‘''anta’'' means an end. ''The Vedanta'' essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas. ''Vedanta'' broadly covers the philosophy enunciated by the holy Scriptural Trinity – the Upanishads, the ''Brahma''-''Sutra'' and the ''Bhagavad'' ''Gita.''<ref name=":1" />

 

 

The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas. The Upanishads are at the end of the Vedas, hence they are referred to as the ''Vedanta''. The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and  ‘''Anta’''. The word ‘''anta’'' means an end. ''The Vedanta'' essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas. The ''Vedanta'' broadly covers the philosophy enunciated by the holy Scriptural Trinity – the Upanishads, the ''Brahma''-''Sutra'' and the ''Bhagavad'' ''Gita.''<ref name=":1" />  

Most of the Upanishads are in forms of dialogues between a master and a disciple. In Upanishads, a seeker raises a topic and the enlightened guru satisfies the query aptly and convincingly.<ref name=":1" />  

Most of the Upanishads are in forms of dialogues between a master and a disciple. In Upanishads, a seeker raises a topic and the enlightened guru satisfies the query aptly and convincingly.<ref name=":1" />  The concepts of Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the Upanishads, and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus. The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.

There are more than 200 Upanishads but there are 10 Principal or Mukhya Upanishads. Some traditions accept 12 Upanishads and some even consider 13.  

There are more than 200 Upanishads but there are 10 Principal or Mukhya Upanishads. Some traditions accept 12 Upanishads and some even consider 13.  

The 10 Mukhya Upanishad on which Adi Sankara commented are:

The 10 Mukhya Upanishad on which Adi Sankara commented are:

# Aitareya Upanishad (Rig Veda)

# Aitareya Upanishad (Rig Veda)

# Chhandogya Upanishad (Saam Veda)

# Chhandogya Upanishad (Saama Veda)

# Kena Upanishad (Saam Veda)

# Kena Upanishad (Saama Veda)

# Katha Upanishad (Yajur Veda)

# Katha Upanishad (Yajur Veda)

# Taittiriya Upanishad (Yajur Veda)

# Taittiriya Upanishad (Yajur Veda)

Some scholars consider the Upanishads as the extended portions of the ''Aranyakas'' or the ''Brahmanas''. For e.g., ''Brihdaranyaka'' Upanishad is considered to be the final chapter of the ''Shat''-''Patha'' ''Brahmana''. Some scholars treat the Vedas and the Upanishads altogether separately.<ref name=":1" />

Some scholars consider the Upanishads as the extended portions of the ''Aranyakas'' or the ''Brahmanas''. For e.g., ''Brihdaranyaka'' Upanishad is considered to be the final chapter of the ''Shat''-''Patha'' ''Brahmana''. Some scholars treat the Vedas and the Upanishads altogether separately.<ref name=":1" />

The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas which discuss philosophical issues. They are the essence of the Vedas containing their knowledge aspects. The philosophy of the Upanishads occupies the highest pedestal in the spiritual knowledge. They speak about the identity of the Supreme Eternal Soul, the Brahman, the individual soul, the Atman, their mutual relationship, the Universe (jagat) and man’s place in it. In short they deal with Jiva, Jagat and Jagadishwara.<ref>http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Vedas-and-Upanishads~-A-Structural-Profile-3.aspx</ref>

The Upanishads are the concluding portions of the Vedas which discuss philosophical issues. They are the essence of the Vedas containing their knowledge aspects. The philosophy of the Upanishads occupies the highest pedestal in the spiritual knowledge. They speak about the identity of the Supreme Eternal Soul, the Brahman, the individual soul, the Atman, their mutual relationship, the Universe (jagat) and man’s place in it. In short they deal with Jiva, Jagat and Jagadishwara and ultimately the path to human salvation (''[[mokṣa]]'' or ''mukti'').<ref>http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Vedas-and-Upanishads~-A-Structural-Profile-3.aspx</ref>

 

 

The '''Upanishads''' ({{lang-sa|{{IAST|Upaniṣad}}}}; {{IPA-sa|ʊpən̪ɪʂəd̪|IPA}}) are a collection of texts that contain some of the central philosophical concepts of [[Hinduism]], some of which are shared with [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=xxiii}}{{refn|group=note|These include rebirth, karma, moksha, ascetic techniques and renunciation.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=xxiii}}}}{{refn|group=note|The Upanishadic, Buddhist and Jain renunciation traditions form parallel traditions, which share some common concepts and interests. While [[Kuru Kingdom|Kuru]]-[[Panchala]], at the central Ganges Plain, formed the center of the early Upanishadic tradition, [[Kosala]]-[[Magadha]] at the central Ganges Plain formed the center of the other [[shramanic]] traditions.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}}} The Upanishads are considered by Hindus to contain utterances (''[[śruti]]'') concerning the nature of ultimate reality (''[[brahman]]'') and describing the character of and path to human salvation (''[[mokṣa]]'' or ''mukti'').

 

The Upanishads are commonly referred to as ''[[Vedānta]]'', variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the [[Vedas|Veda]]" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up The Upanishads], Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1</ref> The concepts of [[Brahman]] (Ultimate Reality) and [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]] (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the Upanishads,{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=59}}<ref name=ptraju/> and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.<ref name=ptraju/><ref name=wdstrappini/> The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.<ref name=wendydoniger/><ref>Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791410806, page 39; '''Quote''': "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";<br />Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1592578467, pages 208-210</ref> Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads are at the spiritual core of Hindus.<ref name=wendydoniger>Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226618470, pages 2-3; '''Quote:''' "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."</ref><ref>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, page 3; '''Quote''': "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".</ref>

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''[[mukhya]]'') Upanishads.<ref name=stephenphillips/><ref>E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, ISBN 978-1586380212, pages 298-299</ref> The ''mukhya'' Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the ''[[Brahmanas]]'' and ''[[Aranyakas]]''{{sfn|Mahadevan|1956|p=56}} and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down [[oral tradition|orally]]. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),<ref name=olivelleintro/> down to the [[Maurya period]].{{sfn|King|Ācārya|p=52|1995}} Of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the [[Muktika]] canon, composed from about the last centuries of 1st-millennium BCE through about 15th-century CE.{{sfn|Olivelle|1992|pp= 5, 8–9}}{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=96}} New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued to be composed through the early modern and modern era,{{sfn|Ranade|1926|p=12}} though often dealing with subjects which are unconnected to the Vedas.{{sfn|Varghese|2008|p=101}}

More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main (''[[mukhya]]'') Upanishads.<ref name="stephenphillips">Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, pages 25-29 and Chapter 1</ref><ref>E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, ISBN 978-1586380212, pages 298-299</ref> The ''mukhya'' Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the ''[[Brahmanas]]'' and ''[[Aranyakas]]'' and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down verbally. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),<ref name="olivelleintro">Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124354, page 12-14</ref> down to the [[Maurya period]].{{sfn|King|Ācārya|p=52|1995}} Some Upanishads continued to be composed through the early modern and modern era,{{sfn|Ranade|1926|p=12}} though often dealing with subjects which are unconnected to the Vedas.

Along with the [[Bhagavad Gita]] and the [[Brahmasutra]], the ''mukhya'' Upanishads (known collectively as the ''[[Prasthanatrayi]]''){{sfn|Ranade|1926|p=205}} provide a foundation for the several later schools of [[Vedanta]], among them, two influential [[monism|monistic]] schools of Hinduism.{{refn|''Advaita Vedanta'', summarized by Shankara (788–820), advances a non-dualistic (''a-dvaita'') interpretation of the Upanishads."{{sfn|Cornille|1992|p=12}}|group=note}}{{refn|"These Upanishadic ideas are developed into Advaita monism. Brahman's unity comes to be taken to mean that appearances of individualities.{{sfn|Phillips|1995|p=10}}|group=note}}{{refn|"The doctrine of advaita (non dualism) has is origin in the Upanishads."|group=note}}

Along with the [[Bhagavad Gita]] and the [[Brahmasutra]], the ''mukhya'' Upanishads (known collectively as the ''[[Prasthanatrayi]]''){{sfn|Ranade|1926|p=205}} provide a foundation for the several later schools of [[Vedanta]], among them, two influential [[monism|monistic]] schools of Hinduism.{{refn|''Advaita Vedanta'', summarized by Shankara (788–820), advances a non-dualistic (''a-dvaita'') interpretation of the Upanishads."{{sfn|Cornille|1992|p=12}}|group=note}}{{refn|"These Upanishadic ideas are developed into Advaita monism. Brahman's unity comes to be taken to mean that appearances of individualities.{{sfn|Phillips|1995|p=10}}|group=note}}{{refn|"The doctrine of advaita (non dualism) has is origin in the Upanishads."|group=note}}

==Etymology==

==Etymology==

The [[Sanskrit]] term ''{{IAST|Upaniṣad}}'' (u = at, pa = foot, nishat =sitting down) translates to "sitting at the foot/feet of", referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving [[esoteric]] knowledge.<ref name="EoH 472">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Constance|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0816073368|pages=472}}</ref> [[Monier-Williams]]' ''Sanskrit Dictionary'' adds that, "According to native authorities Upanishad means 'setting to rest ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the supreme spirit.'"{{sfn|Monier-Williams|p=201}}

The [[Sanskrit]] term ''{{IAST|Upaniṣad}}'' (u = at, pa = foot, nishat =sitting down) translates to "sitting at the foot/feet of", referring to the student sitting down near the teacher while receiving [[esoteric]] knowledge.<ref name="EoH 472">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Constance|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=0816073368|pages=472}}</ref>  

[[Adi Shankara|Shri Adi Shankara]] explains in his commentary on the [[Katha Upanishad|{{IAST|Kaṭha}}]] and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the word means ''Ātmavidyā'', that is, "knowledge of the [[Atman (Hinduism)|Self]]", or ''Brahmavidyā'' "knowledge of Brahma". Other dictionary meanings include "esoteric doctrine" and "secret doctrine". The word appears in the verses of many Upanishads, such as the fourth verse of the 13th volume in first chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad. Max Muller as well as Paul Deussen translate the word ''Upanishad'' in these verses as "secret doctrine",<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n133/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 1.13.4], The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, page 22</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, page 85</ref> Robert Hume translates it as "mystic meaning",<ref>Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n211/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 1.13.4], Oxford University Press, page 190</ref> while Patrick Olivelle translates it as "hidden connections".<ref>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124354, page 185</ref>

[[Adi Shankara|Shri Adi Shankara]] explains in his commentary on the [[Katha Upanishad|{{IAST|Kaṭha}}]] and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the word means ''Ātmavidyā'', that is, "knowledge of the [[Atman (Hinduism)|Self]]", or ''Brahmavidyā'' "knowledge of Brahma". Other dictionary meanings include "esoteric doctrine" and "secret doctrine". The word appears in the verses of many Upanishads, such as the fourth verse of the 13th volume in first chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad.  

==Development==

==Development==

===Chronology===

===Chronology===

Scholars are uncertain about the exact centuries in which the Upanishads were composed.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=12-13}} The chronology of the early Upanishads is difficult to resolve, states philosopher and [[Sanskritist]] Stephen Phillips,<ref name=stephenphillips>Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231144858, pages 25-29 and Chapter 1</ref> because all opinions rest on scanty evidence and analysis of archaism, style and repetitions across texts, and are driven by assumptions about likely evolution of ideas, and presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies. Indologist [[Patrick Olivelle]] says that "in spite of claims made by some, in reality, any dating of these documents [early Upanishads] that attempts a precision closer than a few centuries is as stable as a house of cards".<ref name=olivelleintro>Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124354, page 12-14</ref> Some scholars have sought to analyse similarities between Hindu Upanishads and Buddhist literature to establish chronology for the Upanishads.{{sfn|King|Ācārya|p=52|1995}}

Scholars are uncertain about the exact centuries in which the Upanishads were composed.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=12-13}} The chronology of the early Upanishads is difficult to resolve and different philosophers and Indologists have given different definitions and commentaries on the various Bharatiya sages,  

Patrick Olivelle gives the following chronology for the early Upanishads, also called the [[Principal Upanishads]]:{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=12-13}}<ref name=olivelleintro/>

Patrick Olivelle gives the following chronology for the early Upanishads, also called the [[Principal Upanishads]]:{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=12-13}}<ref name=olivelleintro/>